Modern outstanding discoveries in the field of medicine. Scientific discovery: learned how to turn brown eyes into blue

Medical science has always been one of the most progressive areas of science. The breakthroughs in medical science over the years have either opened up an alternative to earlier ineffective procedures or created a solution to a previously unexplored medical problem. Technology has also played a large role in making medical science more effective and more irreplaceable than ever before. In this review, historical inventions that revolutionized medical science.

1. Stethoscope

Before the stethoscope was invented, doctors listened to their patients' heartbeat by placing their ear to their chest, which was a rather crude and ineffective method. For example, if the patient had significant body fat, then this method did not work.

This was exactly the situation the French physician Rene Lennec faced when he could not accurately estimate the heart rate of one of his patients due to too much fat on his chest. He invented a "stethoscope" in the form of a wooden hollow tube that amplified sounds emanating from the lungs and heart. This principle of sound amplification has not changed until now.

2. X-ray

It is difficult to correctly diagnose and treat injuries such as fractures without X-ray imaging technology. X-rays were accidentally discovered when the German physicist Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen was studying the process of passing an electric current through an extremely low pressure gas.

The scientist noticed that in a darkened room, a cathode ray tube coated with barium-platinum cyanide glows with fluorescent light. Since the cathode rays are invisible, he did not know what kind of rays caused such a glow and called them X-rays. The scientist received the first-ever Nobel Prize in physics in 1901 for his discovery.

3. Mercury thermometer

Today thermometers have become so ubiquitous that it’s impossible to even determine who invented the device. Gabriel Fahrenheit first invented the mercury thermometer in 1714, which is still in use today, although the first device to measure temperature was invented by Galileo in the late 1500s. It was based on the principle of changing the density of a liquid in relation to its temperature. Today, however, mercury thermometers are being phased out in favor of digital thermometers due to the risk of mercury poisoning.

4. Antibiotics

People most often associate the emergence of antibiotics with the discovery of penicillin by Alexander Fleming. In fact, the history of antibiotics began in 1907 with the invention of "salvarsan" by Alfred Bertheim and Paul Ehrlich. Today "salvarsan" is known as "arsphenamine". It was the first drug to effectively counteract syphilis, and it was he who marked the beginning of antibacterial treatment.

Alexander Fleming's discovery of the antibacterial properties of penicillin in 1928 was that antibiotics received massive attention. Today, antibiotics have revolutionized medicine and, when combined with vaccines, have helped to nearly eradicate diseases such as tuberculosis.

5. Hypodermic needle

The hypodermic needle, for all its simplicity, was only invented about 150 years ago. Before that in Ancient Greece and Rome, physicians used thin hollow instruments to inject fluids into the body. In 1656, the dog was given an intravenous injection through a quill pen by Christopher Wren.

The modern hypodermic needle was invented by Charles Pravaz and Alexander Wood sometime in the mid-1800s. Today, these needles are used to deliver the correct dosage of medication into the body during treatment, and to extract body fluids with minimal pain and risk of infection.

6. Points

Glasses are one of the great medical breakthroughs that people usually take for granted. Today it is no longer known who invented the first such device. Centuries ago, scientists and monks used early prototypes of modern spectacles that had to be held in front of their eyes by hand. With the increase in the availability of printed books in the late 1800s, the incidence of myopia increased, leading to the adoption of glasses by the masses.

7. Pacemaker

This important discovery was the fruit of the work of two Australian scientists, Mark C. Hill and physicist Edgar H. Booth in 1926. The prototype was a portable unit, one of the poles of which was connected to a pad soaked in saline solution, and the other to a needle that was inserted into the patient's heart chamber. Despite the crude design of the device, the researchers brought the stillborn baby back to life. Today, pacemakers are much more complex and have an average battery life of 20 years.

8. CT and MRI

The discovery of X-rays has led to a dramatic increase in efforts to find ways to access even more organs without directly cutting the body. This subsequently led to the invention of the CT scanner. Its commercial version was invented by Dr. Godfrey Hounsfield, who won the 1979 Nobel Prize in Medicine.

A CT scanner could display “multiple layers of viscera” of a person on multiple layers of X-ray images. Soon after, Dr. Raymond V. Damadyan invented a method for differentiating cancer and normal cells using nuclear magnetic resonance, which was later improved and called MRI.

9. Prosthetics and implants

Living with a handicap is a very difficult experience, not only physically, but also mentally and emotionally. The invention of the prosthesis was a major breakthrough in enabling disabled people to live beyond wheelchairs and crutches.

The modern prosthesis is made of carbon fiber, which is lighter and stronger than metal and also looks more realistic. The prostheses that are currently being developed have built-in myoelectric sensors that allow the prosthesis to be monitored with brain impulses.

10. Heart defibrillator

Defibrillation of the heart is not a very recent concept. But although she has been known for decades, her introduction to clinical practice can be attributed to Claude Beck, who successfully defibrillated the boy's heart during surgery. Defibrillators today save millions of lives around the world.

BONUS

The most important discoveries in the history of medicine

1. Human Anatomy (1538)

Andreas Vesalius analyzes human bodies on the basis of autopsies, provides detailed information about human anatomy and refutes various interpretations on the topic. Vesalius believes that understanding anatomy is critical to performing operations, so he analyzes human corpses (which is unusual at the time).

His anatomical diagrams of the circulatory and nervous systems, written as a reference to help his students, are copied so often that he is forced to publish them in order to protect their authenticity. In 1543, he published De Humani Corporis Fabrica, which marked the beginning of the birth of the science of anatomy.

2. Blood circulation (1628)

William Harvey discovers that blood circulates throughout the body and names the heart as the organ responsible for blood circulation. His groundbreaking work, an anatomical sketch of the heart and blood circulation in animals, published in 1628, formed the basis for modern physiology.

3. Blood groups (1902)

Caprl Landsteiner

Austrian biologist Karl Landsteiner and his team discover four blood types in humans and develop a classification system. Knowledge of the different blood types is critical to performing a safe blood transfusion, which is common practice today.

4. Anesthesia (1842-1846)

Some scientists have found that certain chemicals can be used as anesthesia, allowing surgery to be performed without pain. The first experiments with anesthetics - nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and sulfuric ether - began to be used in the 19th century, mainly by dentists.

5. X-rays (1895)

Wilhelm Roentgen accidentally discovers X-rays while experimenting with the emission of cathode rays (electron ejection). He notices that the rays are able to penetrate the opaque black paper wrapped around the cathode ray tube. This leads to the glow of the flowers located on the next table. His discovery revolutionized physics and medicine, earning him the first ever Nobel Prize in physics in 1901.

6. Microbial theory (1800)

French chemist Louis Pasteur believes that some microbes are disease-causing agents. At the same time, the origin of diseases such as cholera, anthrax and rabies remains a mystery. Pasteur formulates the microbial theory, assuming that these diseases and many others are caused by the corresponding bacteria. Pasteur is called "the father of bacteriology" because his work was the eve of new scientific research.

7. Vitamins (early 1900s)

Frederick Hopkins and others found that certain diseases were caused by a lack of certain nutrients, later called vitamins. In experiments with food on laboratory animals, Hopkins argues that these "food accessory factors" are essential for health.

Education is one of the foundations of human development. Only due to the fact that from generation to generation mankind passed on its empirical knowledge, at the moment we can enjoy the benefits of civilization, live in a certain prosperity and without destructive racial and tribal wars for access to the resources of existence.
Education has penetrated the Internet as well. One of the educational projects was named Otrok.

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8. Penicillin (1920-1930s)

Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin. Howard Flory and Ernst Boris isolated it in its purest form, creating an antibiotic.

Fleming's discovery happened quite by accident, he noticed that the mold killed the bacteria of a certain sample in the petri dish, which was just lying around in the laboratory sink. Fleming isolates the specimen and calls it Penicillium notatum. In subsequent experiments, Gorvard Flory and Ernst Boris confirmed penicillin treatment in mice with bacterial infections.

9. Sulfur preparations (1930)

Gerhard Domagk discovers that Prontosila, an orange-red dye, is effective for treating infections caused by the common Streptococcus bacteria. This discovery opens the way for the synthesis of chemotherapy drugs (or "miracle drugs") and the production of sulfa drugs, in particular.

10. Vaccination (1796)

Edward Jenner, an English physician, administers the first smallpox vaccination, determining that vaccinated with vaccinia provides immunity. Jenner formulated his theory after observing that patients who work with cattle and came into contact with a cow did not develop smallpox during an epidemic in 1788.

11. Insulin (1920)

Frederick Bunting and his colleagues discovered the hormone insulin, which helps balance blood sugar levels in diabetics and allows them to live normal lives. Before the discovery of insulin, it was impossible to save people with diabetes.

12. Discovery of oncogenes (1975)

13. Discovery of the human retrovirus HIV (1980)

Scientists Robert Gallo and Luc Montagnier separately discovered a new retrovirus, later called HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), and classified it as the causative agent of AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome).

The beginning of the 21st century was marked by many discoveries in the field of medicine, which were written about 10-20 years ago in science fiction novels, and the patients themselves could only dream of them. And although many of these discoveries await a long road of implementation in clinical practice, they no longer belong to the category of conceptual developments, but are actually working devices, albeit not yet massively used in medical practice.

1. Artificial heart AbioCor

In July 2001, a group of surgeons from Louisville, Kentucky managed to implant a new generation of artificial heart in a patient. The device, dubbed AbioCor, was implanted in a person who was suffering from heart failure. The artificial heart was developed by Abiomed, Inc. Although similar devices have been used in the past, the AbioCor is the most advanced of its kind.

In previous versions, the patient had to be attached to a huge console through tubes and wires that were implanted through the skin. This meant that the person remained bedridden. AbioCor, on the other hand, exists completely autonomously inside the human body, and does not need additional tubes or wires that go outside.

2. Bio-artificial liver

The idea of \u200b\u200bcreating a bio-artificial liver came to the head of Dr. Kenneth Matsumura, who decided to approach the issue in a new way. The scientist has created a device that uses liver cells collected from animals. The device is considered bio-artificial because it consists of biological and artificial material. In 2001, the bio-artificial liver was named TIME magazine's Invention of the Year.

3. Tablet with a camera

With this pill, you can diagnose cancer at the earliest stages. The device was created with the goal of producing high-quality color images in confined spaces. The chamber pill can detect signs of esophageal cancer, its size is approximately equal to the width of an adult's nail and twice as long.

4. Bionic contact lenses

Bionic contact lenses were developed by researchers at the University of Washington. They managed to connect elastic contact lenses with a printed circuit board. This invention helps the user see the world by superimposing computerized images on top of their own vision. According to the inventors, bionic contact lenses can come in handy for drivers and pilots by showing them routes, weather information, or vehicles... In addition, these contact lenses can monitor a person's physical indicators such as cholesterol levels, bacteria and viruses. The collected data can be sent to a computer using wireless transmission.

5. Bionic arm iLIMB

Created by David Gow in 2007, the iLIMB bionic arm is the world's first artificial limb to feature five individually mechanized fingers. Users of the device will be able to hold objects of various shapes in their hand - for example, cup handles. iLIMB consists of 3 separate parts: 4 fingers, thumb and palm. Each of the parts contains its own control system.

6. Assistant robots during operations

Surgeons have been using robotic arms for some time, but now a robot has appeared that can perform the operation on its own. A team of scientists from Duke University has already tested the robot. They used it on dead turkey (since turkey meat has a similar structure to human meat). The success rate of robots is estimated at 93%. Of course, it is too early to talk about autonomous robotic surgeons, but this invention is a major step in this direction.

7. Mind-reading device

“Mind reading” is a term used by psychologists to imply the subconscious detection and analysis of non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions or head movements. These signals help people understand each other's emotional state. This invention is the brainchild of three scientists at the MIT Media Lab. A mind-reading machine scans the user's brain signals and notifies those with whom they are communicating. The device can be used to work with autists.

8. Elekta Axesse

Elekta Axesse is a state-of-the-art cancer fighting device. It was created with the aim of treating tumors throughout the body - in the spine, lungs, prostate, liver and many others. Elekta Axesse combines several functionalities. The device can perform stereotaxic radiosurgery, stereotaxic radiation therapy, radiosurgery. During treatment, doctors have the opportunity to observe a 3D image of the area to be treated.

9. Exoskeleton eLEGS

The eLEGS exoskeleton is one of the most impressive inventions of the 21st century. It is easy to use and can be worn by patients not only in the hospital but also at home. The device allows you to stand, walk and even climb steps. The exoskeleton is suitable for people from 157 cm to 193 cm tall and weighing up to 100 kg.

ten . Eye painter

This device is intended to help people who are bedridden in communication. The Eye Recorder is a collaborative creation of researchers from the Ebeling Group, Not Impossible Foundation and Graffiti Research Lab. The technology is based on cheap, eye-tracking glasses equipped with open source software. These glasses allow people with neuromuscular syndrome to communicate by drawing or recording on the screen by capturing eye movements and converting them into lines on the display.

Ekaterina Martynenko

HISTORY OF MEDICINE:
Milestones and great discoveries

Based on materials from Discovery TV channel
("Discovery Channel")

Medical discoveries have transformed the world. They have changed the course of history, saving countless lives, pushing the boundaries of our knowledge to the boundaries on which we stand today, ready for new great discoveries.

human anatomy

In ancient Greece, the treatment of disease was based more on philosophy than on a true understanding of human anatomy. Surgical intervention was rare, and dissection of corpses was not yet practiced. As a result, doctors had practically no information about the internal structure of a person. It was only during the Renaissance that anatomy was born as a science.

Belgian physician Andreas Vesalius shocked many when he decided to study anatomy by dissecting corpses. Material for research had to be obtained under cover of night. Scientists like Vesalius had to resort to not entirely legal methods. When Vesalius became a professor at Padua, he became friends with the executor. Vesalius decided to pass on the experience gained over the years of skillful dissections by writing a book on human anatomy. This is how the book "On the Structure of the Human Body" appeared. Published in 1538, the book is considered one of the greatest works in the field of medicine, as well as one of the greatest discoveries, as it gives a correct description of the structure of the human body for the first time. This was the first serious challenge to the authority of the ancient Greek doctors. The book sold out in huge numbers. It was bought by educated people, even those far from medicine. The entire text is very meticulously illustrated. So information about human anatomy became much more accessible. Thanks to Vesalius, the study of human anatomy through dissection has become an integral part of the training of doctors. And that brings us to the next great discovery.

Circulation

The human heart is a fist-sized muscle. It contracts more than a hundred thousand times a day, over seventy years - that's more than two billion heartbeats. The heart pumps 23 liters of blood per minute. Blood flows through the body, passing through a complex system of arteries and veins. If all the blood vessels in the human body are stretched in one line, then you get 96 thousand kilometers, which is more than twice the circumference of the Earth. Until the early 17th century, the circulatory process was misrepresented. The prevailing theory was that blood flowed to the heart through the pores in the soft tissues of the body. Among the adherents of this theory was the English physician William Harvey. The work of the heart fascinated him, but the more he observed heartbeats in animals, the more he realized that the generally accepted theory of blood circulation was simply wrong. He writes unambiguously: "... I wondered if the blood could move as if in a circle?" And the very first phrase in the next paragraph: "Subsequently, I found out that this is how it is ...". Through autopsies, Harvey discovered that the heart has unidirectional valves that only allow blood to flow in one direction. Some valves let in blood, others let out. And it was a great discovery. Harvey realized that the heart pumps blood into the arteries, then it passes through the veins and, closing the circle, returns to the heart, then to start the cycle again. Today it seems like a common truth, but for the 17th century, William Harvey's discovery was revolutionary. It was a devastating blow to established medical concepts. At the end of his treatise, Harvey writes: "When I think of the myriad consequences that this will have for medicine, I see a field of almost limitless possibilities."
Harvey's discovery seriously advanced anatomy and surgery, and saved many lives. All over the world, surgical clamps are used in operating rooms to block blood flow and keep the patient's circulatory system intact. And each of them is a reminder of the great discovery of William Harvey.

Blood types

Another great discovery related to blood was made in Vienna in 1900. All of Europe was filled with enthusiasm for blood transfusions. First, there were claims that the healing effect was amazing, and then, after a few months, reports of the dead. Why was the transfusion sometimes successful and sometimes not? Austrian physician Karl Landsteiner was determined to find the answer. He mixed blood samples from different donors and studied the results.
In some cases the blood mixed successfully, but in others it curdled and became viscous. On closer inspection, Landsteiner discovered that blood clots when specific proteins in the recipient's blood, called antibodies, react with other proteins in the donor's red blood cells - antigens. For Landsteiner, this was a turning point. He realized that not all human blood is the same. It turned out that blood can be clearly divided into 4 groups, to which he gave the designations: A, B, AB and zero. It turned out that a blood transfusion is successful only if a person is transfused with blood of the same group. Landsteiner's discovery was immediately reflected in medical practice. A few years later, blood transfusions were practiced all over the world, saving many lives. Thanks to the accurate determination of the blood group, organ transplants became possible by the 50s. Today, in the United States alone, a blood transfusion is performed every 3 seconds. Without it, about 4.5 million Americans would die every year.

Anesthesia

Although the first great discoveries in the field of anatomy helped doctors save many lives, there was no way they could ease the pain. Without anesthesia, operations were a nightmare. Patients were held or tied to a table, and surgeons tried to work as quickly as possible. In 1811, one woman wrote: “When the terrible steel pierced me, dissecting the veins, arteries, flesh, nerves, I no longer needed to be asked not to interfere. I screamed and screamed until it was over. The torment was so unbearable. " Surgery was the last resort; many would rather die than go under the surgeon's knife. For centuries, improvised means have been used to relieve pain during operations, some of them, for example, opium or mandrake extract, were drugs. By the 40s of the 19th century, several people were simultaneously searching for a more effective anesthetic: two Boston dentists, William Morton and Horost Wells, acquaintances, and a doctor named Crawford Long from Georgia.
They experimented with two substances believed to relieve pain — nitrous oxide, or laughing gas — and a liquid mixture of alcohol and sulfuric acid. The question of who exactly discovered the anesthesia remains controversial, as all three claimed. One of the first public demonstrations of anesthesia took place on October 16, 1846. V. Morton experimented with ether for months, trying to find a dosage that would allow the patient to undergo surgery without pain. To the general public, which consisted of Boston surgeons and medical students, he presented the device of his invention.
A patient who was to have a tumor on his neck removed was given ether. Morton waited, and the surgeon made the first incision. Amazingly, the patient did not scream. After the operation, the patient reported that he had not felt anything all this time. The news of the discovery spread throughout the world. You can operate without pain, now there is anesthesia. But despite the discovery, many refused to use anesthesia. According to some creeds, pain must be endured, not relieved, especially birth pangs. But here Queen Victoria had her say. In 1853 she gave birth to Prince Leopold. At her request, she was given chloroform. It turned out to ease the pain of childbirth. After that, the women began to say: "I will also take chloroform, because if the queen does not disdain them, then I am not ashamed either."

X-rays

It is impossible to imagine life without the next great discovery. Imagine that we do not know where to operate on the patient, or which bone is broken, where the bullet is stuck, and what pathology may be. The ability to look inside a person without cutting it was a turning point in the history of medicine. In the late 19th century, people used electricity without really understanding what it was. In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen experimented with a cathode-ray tube, a glass cylinder with highly rarefied air inside. Roentgen was interested in the glow created by the rays emanating from the tube. For one experiment, Roentgen surrounded the tube with black cardboard and darkened the room. Then he switched on the receiver. And then, he was struck by one thing - the photographic plate in his laboratory was glowing. Roentgen realized that something very unusual was happening. And that the ray emanating from the tube is not a cathode ray at all; he also found that he did not respond to a magnet. And it could not be deflected by a magnet like cathode rays. This was a completely unknown phenomenon, and Roentgen called it "X-rays." Quite by accident, Roentgen discovered radiation unknown to science, which we call X-ray. For several weeks he behaved very mysteriously, and then called his wife into the office and said: "Bertha, let me show you what I am doing here, because no one will believe it." He put her hand under the beam and took a picture.
The wife is said to have said, "I saw my death." Indeed, in those days it was impossible to see the skeleton of a person if he did not die. The very idea of \u200b\u200bphotographing the internal structure of a living person simply did not fit into my head. It was as if a secret door had opened, and the whole universe opened behind it. Roentgen discovered a powerful new technology that revolutionized diagnostics. The discovery of X-rays is the only discovery in the history of science that was made unintentionally, completely accidentally. As soon as it was done, the world immediately adopted it without any debate. In a week or two, our world has changed. The discovery of X-rays is the backbone of many of the most modern and powerful technologies, from computed tomography to an X-ray telescope that captures X-rays from deep space. And all this is due to a discovery made by accident.

Theory of microbial origin of diseases

Some discoveries, for example, X-rays, are made by chance, while various scientists have been working on others for a long time. So it was in 1846. Vein. The epitome of beauty and culture, but the ghost of death hovers in the Vienna City Hospital. Many of the women in labor who were here were dying. The reason is childbirth fever, uterine infection. When Dr. Ignaz Semmelweis began working in this hospital, he was alarmed by the scale of the disaster and puzzled by the strange incongruity: there were two departments.
In one, the birth was attended by doctors, and in the other, the birth was attended by midwives. Semmelweis found that in the department where the doctors took part in childbirth, 7% of women in labor died from the so-called maternity fever. And in the department where midwives worked, only 2% died of childbirth fever. This surprised him, because doctors are much better trained. Semmelweis decided to find out what was the reason. He noted that one of the main differences in the work of doctors and midwives was that doctors performed autopsies on deceased women. Then they went to give birth or to examine their mothers without even washing their hands. Semmelweis wondered if doctors were carrying some invisible particles on their hands, which were then passed on to patients and entailed death. To find out, he ran an experiment. He decided to make sure that all medical students must wash their hands in a solution of bleach. And the number of deaths immediately fell to 1%, lower than that of midwives. Thanks to this experiment, Semmelweis realized that infectious diseases, in this case, childbirth fever, have only one cause and if it is excluded, the disease will not arise. But in 1846, no one saw a connection between bacteria and infection. Semmelweis's ideas were not taken seriously.

It took another 10 years before another scientist paid attention to microorganisms. His name was Louis Pasteur, and three of Pasteur's five children died of typhoid fever, which partly explains why he was so persistent in his search for the cause of infectious diseases. Pasteur's work for the wine and brewing industries led him on the right track. Pasteur tried to find out why only a small part of the wine produced in his country is spoiled. He discovered that sour wine contains special microorganisms, microbes, and it is they who make the wine sour. But by simply heating, as Pasteur showed, germs can be killed and wine saved. Thus pasteurization was born. Therefore, when it was required to find the cause of infectious diseases, Pasteur knew where to look for it. These microbes, he said, cause certain diseases, and he proved this by conducting a series of experiments, from which a great discovery was born - the theory of microbial development of organisms. Its essence lies in the fact that certain microorganisms cause a certain disease in anyone.

Vaccination

The next of the great discoveries was made in the 18th century, when about 40 million people died from smallpox worldwide. The doctors could find neither the cause of the disease, nor the remedy for it. But in one English village, talk about the fact that some of the local residents are not susceptible to smallpox attracted the attention of a local doctor named Edward Jenner.

It was rumored that dairy workers did not get smallpox because they had already suffered from cowpox, a related but milder disease that afflicted livestock. Patients with cowpox had a fever and ulcers on their hands. Jenner studied this phenomenon and wondered if the pus from these ulcers somehow protects the body from smallpox? On May 14, 1796, during the outbreak of the smallpox epidemic, he decided to test his theory. Jenner took fluid from a sore on the arm of a cowpox milkmaid. Then, he visited another family; there he administered vaccinia virus to a healthy eight-year-old boy. In the following days the boy had a slight fever and several smallpox blisters appeared. Then he recovered. Jenner returned six weeks later. This time, he inoculated the boy with smallpox and waited to see how the experiment would turn out - a victory or a failure. A few days later, Jenner received an answer - the boy was completely healthy and immune to smallpox.
The invention of smallpox vaccination revolutionized medicine. This was the first attempt to intervene in the course of the disease by preventing it in advance. For the first time, human-made products were actively used to prevent disease even before it appears.
50 years after Jenner's discovery, Louis Pasteur developed the idea of \u200b\u200bvaccination by developing a vaccine against rabies in humans and anthrax in sheep. And in the 20th century, Jonas Salk and Albert Seibin, independently of each other, created a polio vaccine.

Vitamins

The next discovery took place through the labors of scientists, who for many years independently fought over the same problem.
Throughout history, scurvy was a serious illness that caused skin lesions and bleeding in sailors. Finally, in 1747, the Scottish ship surgeon James Lind found a remedy for it. He found that scurvy could be prevented by including citrus fruits in the diet of sailors.

Another common ailment among sailors was beriberi, a disease that affected the nerves, heart, and digestive tract. In the late 19th century, the Dutch physician Christian Eikmann determined that the disease was caused by eating white polished rice instead of brown unpolished rice.

Although both of these discoveries indicated a connection between diseases and nutrition and its deficiencies, only the English biochemist Frederick Hopkins could figure out this connection. He suggested that the body needs substances that are only in certain foods. To prove his hypothesis, Hopkins conducted a series of experiments. He gave mice artificial nutrition, consisting exclusively of pure proteins, fats, carbohydrates and salts. The mice became weak and stopped growing. But after a little milk, the mice recovered again. Hopkins discovered, as he put it, "an essential nutritional factor," which was later called vitamins.
It turned out that beriberi is associated with a lack of thiamine, vitamin B1, which is not found in polished rice, but is abundant in natural rice. Citrus fruits prevent scurvy because they contain ascorbic acid, vitamin C.
Hopkins' discovery was a defining step in understanding the importance of proper nutrition. Many bodily functions depend on vitamins, from fighting infections to regulating metabolism. It is difficult to imagine life without them, as well as without the next great discovery.

Penicillin

After the First World War, which claimed more than 10 million lives, the search for safe methods of repelling bacterial aggression intensified. After all, many died not on the battlefield, but from infected wounds. Scottish physician Alexander Fleming also participated in the research. While studying the staphylococcus bacteria, Fleming noticed that something unusual was growing in the center of the laboratory dish - mold. He saw that the bacteria around the mold had died. This led him to speculate that she was secreting a substance that was harmful to bacteria. He called this substance penicillin. For the next several years, Fleming tried to isolate penicillin and use it in the treatment of infections, but failed, and, in the end, gave up. However, the results of his labors were invaluable.

In 1935, Howard Flory and Ernst Chain at Oxford University came across a report of Fleming's curious but unfinished experiments and decided to try their luck. These scientists were able to isolate penicillin in its purest form. And in 1940, they tested it. Eight mice were injected with a lethal dose of streptococcal bacteria. Then, four of them were injected with penicillin. Within a few hours, the results were evident. All four mice that did not receive penicillin died, but three of the four that received it survived.

So, thanks to Fleming, Flory and Chain, the world received the first antibiotic. This medicine has become a real miracle. It cured so many ailments that caused a lot of pain and suffering: strep throat, rheumatism, scarlet fever, syphilis and gonorrhea ... Today we have completely forgotten that one can die from these diseases.

Sulfide preparations

The next great discovery came during the Second World War. It got rid of dysentery for American soldiers who fought in the Pacific. And then led to a revolution in chemotherapy treatment of bacterial infections.
It all happened thanks to a pathologist named Gerhard Domagk. In 1932, he studied the possibilities of using some new chemical dyes in medicine. Working with a newly synthesized dye called prontosil, Domagk injected it into several laboratory mice infected with streptococcus bacteria. As Domagk expected, the dye enveloped the bacteria, but the bacteria survived. The dye seemed to be toxic enough. Then something amazing happened: Although the dye did not kill the bacteria, it stopped their growth, the spread of the infection stopped and the mice recovered. When Domagk first experienced prontosil in humans is unknown. However, the new drug gained fame after it saved the life of a boy seriously ill with staphylococcus aureus. The patient was Franklin Roosevelt Jr., son of the President of the United States. The opening of Domagka instantly became a sensation. Because prontosil contained a sulfa molecular structure, it was called a sulfa drug. It was the first in this group of synthetic chemicals capable of treating and preventing bacterial infections. Domagk opened a new revolutionary direction in the treatment of diseases, the use of chemotherapy drugs. It will save tens of thousands of human lives.

Insulin

The next great discovery helped save the lives of millions of people with diabetes around the world. Diabetes is an ailment that interferes with the body's absorption of sugar, which can lead to blindness, kidney failure, heart disease, and even death. For centuries, physicians have studied diabetes, unsuccessfully seeking remedies for it. Finally, at the end of the 19th century, a breakthrough occurred. It was found that diabetics have a common feature - a group of cells in the pancreas are invariably affected - these cells secrete a hormone that controls blood sugar. The hormone was named insulin. And in 1920 - a new breakthrough. Canadian surgeon Frederick Bunting and student Charles Best studied insulin secretion from the pancreas in dogs. Intuitively, Bunting injected an extract from insulin-producing cells from a healthy dog \u200b\u200bto a diabetic dog. The results were stunning. After a few hours, the blood sugar level of the sick animal dropped significantly. Now the attention of Bunting and his assistants focused on the search for an animal whose insulin would be similar to human. They found a close match in insulin taken from cow embryos, purified it for the safety of the experiment, and conducted the first clinical trial in January 1922. Banting injected insulin into a 14-year-old boy who was dying of diabetes. And he quickly went on the mend. How important is the discovery of Bunting? Ask the 15 million Americans who get the insulin on which their lives depend on a daily basis.

Genetic nature of cancer

Cancer is the second most fatal disease in America. Intensive research into its origin and development led to remarkable scientific achievements, but perhaps the most important of them was the following discovery. Nobel laureates, cancer researchers Michael Bishop and Harold Varmus, joined forces in cancer research in the 1970s. At the time, several theories dominated about the cause of this disease. A malignant cell is very difficult. She is capable of not only sharing, but also intruding. It is a highly developed cell. One theory has looked at the Rous sarcoma virus, which causes cancer in chickens. When a virus attacks a chicken cell, it injects its genetic material into the host's DNA. According to the hypothesis, the DNA of the virus subsequently becomes the agent that causes the disease. According to another theory, when a virus introduces its genetic material into a host cell, the genes that cause cancer are not activated, but wait until they are triggered by external influences, for example, harmful chemicals, radiation or a common viral infection. These cancer-causing genes, the so-called oncogenes, became the focus of research by Varmus and Bishop. The main question is: does the human genome contain genes that are or can become oncogenes like those found in the virus that causes tumors? Does such a gene exist in chickens, in other birds, in mammals, in humans? Bishop and Varmus took a labeled radioactive molecule and used it as a probe to find out if the oncogene of the Rous sarcoma virus is similar to any normal gene in chicken chromosomes. The answer is yes. It was a real revelation. Varmus and Bishop found that the cancer-causing gene is already contained in the DNA of healthy chicken cells and, more importantly, they found it in human DNA, proving that a cancer embryo can appear in any of us at the cellular level and wait for activation.

How can our own gene, which we have lived with all our lives, cause cancer? During cell division, errors occur and they are more common if the cell is oppressed by cosmic radiation, tobacco smoke. It is also important to remember that when a cell divides, it needs to copy 3 billion complementary DNA pairs. Anyone who has ever tried to print knows how difficult it is. We have mechanisms to detect and correct mistakes, and yet, at high volumes, fingers miss.
What is the importance of discovery? Previously, they tried to comprehend cancer based on the differences between the gene of the virus and the genome of the cell, but now we know that a very small change in certain genes of our cells can turn a healthy cell, which normally grows, dividing, etc., into a malignant one. And this was the first clear illustration of the true state of affairs.

The search for this gene is a defining moment in modern diagnostics and prediction of the further behavior of a cancer tumor. The discovery gave clear goals for specific therapies that simply did not exist before.
The population of Chicago is about 3 million people.

HIV

The same number die each year from AIDS, one of the worst epidemics in modern history. The first signs of this disease appeared in the early 80s of the last century. In America, the number of patients dying from rare types of infections and cancer began to grow. Blood tests on the victims revealed extremely low levels of white blood cells, which are vital to the human immune system. In 1982, the Center for Disease Control and Prevention gave the disease the name AIDS - acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Two researchers took over, Luc Montagnier of the Pasteur Institute in Paris and Robert Gallo of the National Cancer Institute in Washington. Both of them managed to make an important discovery that revealed the causative agent of AIDS - HIV, the human immunodeficiency virus. What is the difference between the human immunodeficiency virus and other viruses, such as influenza? Firstly, this virus does not show the presence of the disease for years, on average, 7 years. The second problem is very unique: for example, AIDS finally manifested itself, people understand that they are sick and go to the clinic, and they have a myriad of other infections, what exactly caused the disease. How to determine this? In most cases, the virus exists for a single purpose: to enter the acceptor cell and multiply. Usually, it attaches to the cell and releases its genetic information into it. This allows the virus to subjugate the functions of the cell, redirecting them to the production of new viruses. Then these individuals attack other cells. But HIV is not an ordinary virus. It belongs to the category of viruses that scientists call retroviruses. What is unusual about them? Like the classes of viruses that include polio or influenza, retroviruses are special categories. They are unique in that their genetic information in the form of ribonucleic acid is converted into deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and exactly what happens to DNA is our problem: DNA is embedded in our genes, the DNA of the virus becomes part of us, and then the cells, those who are meant to protect us begin to replicate the DNA of the virus. There are cells that contain the virus, sometimes they reproduce it, sometimes they don't. They are silent. They hide ... But only in order to then reproduce the virus again. Those. when an infection becomes apparent, it is likely to have taken a lifetime. This is the main problem. No cure for AIDS has yet been found. But the discovery, that HIV is a retrovirus, and that it is the causative agent of AIDS, has led to significant advances in the fight against this disease. What has changed in medicine since the discovery of retroviruses, especially HIV? For example, we have learned from AIDS that drug therapy is possible. It used to be believed that since the virus usurps our cells for reproduction, it is almost impossible to influence it without severe poisoning of the patient himself. Nobody has invested in antivirus software. AIDS has opened the door to antiviral research in pharmaceutical companies and universities around the world. In addition, AIDS has had a positive social impact. Ironically, this terrible ailment brings people together.

And so, day after day, century after century, in tiny steps or grandiose breakthroughs, great and small discoveries in medicine were made. They give hope that humanity will defeat cancer and AIDS, autoimmune and genetic diseases, achieve excellence in prevention, diagnosis and treatment, alleviating the suffering of sick people and preventing the progression of diseases.

The main antihero of our time - cancer - it seems, after all, fell into the network of scientists. Israeli specialists from Bar-Ilan University talked about their scientific discovery: they created nanorobots capable of killing cancer cells... Killers are made of DNA, a natural biocompatible and biodegradable material, and can carry bioactive molecules and drugs. Robots are able to move with the flow of blood and recognize malignant cells, immediately destroying them. This mechanism is similar to how our immune system works, but more accurate.

Scientists have already completed 2 stages of the experiment.

• First, they placed nanorobots in a test tube with healthy and cancerous cells. After 3 days, half of the malignant ones were destroyed, and none of the healthy ones suffered!
• Then the researchers introduced hunters to cockroaches (scientists generally have a strange love for barbel, so they will appear in this article), proving that robots can successfully assemble from DNA fragments and accurately find target cells, not necessarily cancerous, inside a living creature.

The human trials, which will begin this year, will involve patients with an extremely poor prognosis (only a few months of life, according to doctors). If the calculations of scientists turn out to be correct, nanokillers will cope with oncology within a month.

Change in eye color

The problem of improving or changing a person's appearance is still being solved by plastic surgery. Looking at Mickey Rourke, attempts can not always be called successful, and we have heard a lot about all sorts of complications. But, fortunately, science offers all new ways of transformation.

Californian doctors from Stroma Medical also committed scientific discovery: learned how to turn brown eyes into blue... Several dozen operations have already been carried out in Mexico and Costa Rica (in the United States, permission for such manipulations has not yet been obtained due to lack of security data).

The essence of the method is to remove a thin layer of melanin pigment using a laser (the procedure takes 20 seconds). After a few weeks, the dead particles are independently excreted by the body, and a natural Sineglazka looks at the patient from the mirror. (The trick is that at birth all people have blue eyes, but in 83% they are obscured by a layer filled to varying degrees with melanin.) It is possible that after the destruction of the pigment layer, doctors will learn to fill their eyes with new colors. Then people with orange, gold or purple eyes will flood the streets, delighting the songwriters.

Skin discoloration

And on the other side of the world, in Switzerland, scientists have finally figured out the secret of the chameleon's tricks. A network of nanocrystals located in special skin cells called iridophores allows it to change color. There is nothing supernatural about these crystals: they consist of guanine, a component of DNA. In a relaxed state, the nanoheroes form a dense network that reflects green and blue colors. When excited, the net is stretched, the distance between the crystals increases, and the skin begins to reflect red, yellow and other colors.

In general, as soon as genetic engineering allows the creation of cells like iridophores, we will wake up in a society where the mood can be broadcast not only by facial expressions, but also by the color of the hand... And there it is close to the conscious management of appearance, like the Mystic from the movie "X-Men"

Bodies printed on a 3D printer

An important breakthrough in the repair of human bodies has also been made in our homeland. Scientists from the laboratory "3D Bioprinting Solutions" have created a unique 3D printer that prints body tissues. Recently, for the first time, mouse thyroid tissue was obtained, which is going to be transplanted into a live rodent in the coming months. Structural components of the body, such as the trachea, have been stamped before. The goal of Russian scientists is to obtain a fully functioning tissue. These can be endocrine glands, kidneys, or liver. Printing fabrics with known parameters will help to avoid incompatibility - one of the main problems of transplantation.

Cockroaches in the service of the Ministry of Emergencies

Another amazing development can save the lives of people stuck under the rubble after disasters or trapped in hard-to-reach places - mines or caves. Using special acoustic stimuli transmitted by a "knapsack" on the back of a cockroach, minds made scientific discovery: learned how to manipulate an insect like a radio-controlled machine... The sense from using a living creature lies in its instinct for self-preservation and ability to navigate, thanks to which the barbel overcomes obstacles and avoids danger. By hanging a small camera on a cockroach, you can successfully "inspect" hard-to-reach places and make decisions about the method of evacuation.

Telepathy and telekinesis for everyone

Another incredible news: telepathy and telekinesis, all the way considered quackery, are actually real. In recent years, scientists have been able to establish a telepathic connection between two animals, an animal and a person, and, finally, recently, for the first time, a thought was transmitted at a distance - from one citizen to another. The miracle happened thanks to 3 technologies.

1. Electroencephalography (EEG) captures electrical activity in the brain in waves and serves as an “output device”. After some training, certain waves can be associated with specific images in the head.
2. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) allows using a magnetic field to create an electric current in the brain, which makes it possible to "bring" these images into the gray matter. TMS serves as an "input device".
3. Finally, the Internet allows these images to be transmitted as digital signals from one person to another. So far, the images and words being broadcast are very primitive, but any complex technology must start somewhere.

Telekinesis was made possible by the same electrical activity of gray matter. So far, this technology requires surgical intervention: signals are removed from the brain by a tiny grid of electrodes and transmitted digitally to a manipulator. Recently, a 53-year-old paralyzed woman, Jen Schoerman, used this scientific discovery from the University of Pittsburgh to successfully fly a plane in an F-35 fighter computer simulator. For example, the author of the article can hardly cope with flight simulators, even with two functioning arms.

In the future, technologies for transmitting thoughts and movements at a distance will not only improve the quality of life of the paralyzed, but will certainly enter everyday life, allowing them to warm up dinner with the power of thought.

Safe driving

The best minds work on a car that does not require the active participation of the driver. Tesla cars, for example, already know how to park themselves, drive out of the garage on a timer and drive up to the owner, rebuild in the stream and obey road signs that limit the speed of movement. And the day is near when computer control will finally allow you to put your feet on the dashboard and calmly do a pedicure on the way to work.

In parallel, the Slovak engineers from the AeroMobil company really created a car from science fiction films. Double the car drives on the highway, but as soon as it steers into the field, it literally spreads its wings and takes offto take a shortcut. Or jump over a payment point on toll roads. (You can see it with your own eyes on YouTube.) Of course, one-piece flying units have been produced before, but this time the engineers promise to launch a car with wings on the market in 2 years.