John locke is a representative of what philosophy. John locke main ideas

John Locke. Born August 29, 1632 in Rington, Somerset, England - died October 28, 1704 in Essex, England. British educator and philosopher, representative of empiricism and liberalism. Contributed to the spread of sensationalism. His ideas had a huge impact on the development of epistemology and political philosophy. He is widely recognized as one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers and theorists of liberalism. Locke's letters influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers and American revolutionaries. Its influence is also reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.

Locke's theoretical constructions were also noted by later philosophers, such as and. Locke was the first thinker to reveal personality through the continuity of consciousness. He also postulated that the mind is a "blank slate", that is, contrary to Cartesian philosophy, Locke argued that people are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience gained through sensory perception.

Born August 29, 1632 in the small town of Rington in the west of England, near Bristol, in the family of a provincial lawyer.

In 1646, on the recommendation of his father's commander (who during the Civil War was a captain in the parliamentary army of Cromwell), he was enrolled in Westminster School. In 1652 Locke, one of the best students in the school, entered Oxford University. In 1656 he received a bachelor's degree, and in 1658 - a master's degree from this university.

In 1667, Locke accepts the offer of Lord Ashley (later Earl of Shaftesbury) to take the place of his son's family doctor and educator, and then actively participates in political activities. Begins to create the "Epistles on Tolerance" (published: 1st - in 1689, 2nd and 3rd - in 1692 (these three - anonymously), 4th - in 1706, after Locke's death).

On behalf of the Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke participated in drafting the Constitution for the province of Carolina in North America ("Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina").

1668 Locke is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1669 - a member of its Council. Locke's main areas of interest were natural science, medicine, politics, economics, pedagogy, the attitude of the state to the church, the problem of religious tolerance and freedom of conscience.

1671 - decides to carry out a thorough study of the cognitive abilities of the human mind. This was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe scientist's main work - "Experience on Human Understanding", on which he worked for 16 years.

1672 and 1679 - Locke is promoted to various prominent positions in the highest government offices in England. But Locke's career depended directly on ups and downs. From late 1675 to mid-1679, Locke was in France due to deteriorating health.

In 1683 Locke emigrated to Holland following Shaftesbury. In the years 1688-1689 came the denouement that put an end to Locke's wanderings. A glorious revolution took place, William III of Orange was proclaimed king of England. Locke participated in the preparation of the coup of 1688, was in close contact with William of Orange and exerted a great ideological influence on him; at the beginning of 1689 he returned to his homeland.

In the 1690s, along with the government service, Locke again carried out extensive scientific and literary activities. In 1690, The Experience on Human Understanding, Two Treatises on Government, in 1693, Thoughts on Education, in 1695, The Reasonableness of Christianity, were published.

John Locke's philosophy:

The basis of our knowledge is experience, which consists of single perceptions. Perceptions are divided into sensations (the action of an object on our senses) and reflection. Ideas arise in the mind as a result of abstraction of perceptions. The principle of building the mind as a "tabula rasa", which gradually reflects information from the senses. Empirical principle: the primacy of sensation over reason.

He had an extremely strong influence on the philosophy of Locke. Descartes' doctrine of knowledge underlies all of Locke's epistemological views. Accurate knowledge, Descartes taught, consists in the understanding by the mind of a clear and obvious relationship between clear and separate ideas; where reason, through comparison of ideas, does not perceive such relations, there can be only opinion, not knowledge; reliable truths are obtained by reason directly or through inference from other truths, why knowledge is intuitive and deductive; deduction is carried out not through a syllogism, but through bringing the compared ideas to a point whereby the relationship between them becomes obvious; deductive knowledge, which is composed of intuition, is quite reliable, but since it at the same time depends in some respects on memory, it is less reliable than intuitive knowledge. In all this Locke fully agrees with Descartes; he assumes the Cartesian position that the most certain truth is the intuitive truth of our own existence.

In the doctrine of substance, Locke agrees with Descartes that a phenomenon is inconceivable without a substance, that substance is found in signs, and is not cognized by itself; he objects only to Descartes' position that the soul constantly thinks, that thinking is the main feature of the soul. Agreeing with the Cartesian doctrine of the origin of truths, Locke disagrees with Descartes on the issue of the origin of ideas. According to Locke, developed in detail in the second book of Experience, all complex ideas are gradually developed by the mind from simple ideas, and simple ones come from external or internal experience. In the first book of Experience, Locke explains in detail and critically why one cannot suppose another source of ideas as external and internal experience. Having listed the signs by which ideas are recognized as innate, he shows that these signs do not at all prove innate. For example, universal recognition does not prove innate if it is possible to point to a different explanation of the fact of universal recognition, and the very universality of recognition of a known principle is questionable. Even if we assume that some principles are revealed by our mind, this does not at all prove their innateness. Locke does not at all deny, however, that our cognitive activity is determined by certain laws inherent in the human spirit. He recognizes, together with Descartes, two elements of knowledge - innate beginnings and external data; the former include reason and will. Reason is the ability through which we receive and form ideas, both simple and complex, as well as the ability to perceive certain relationships between ideas.

So, Locke differs from Descartes only in that he recognizes, instead of the innate potentialities of individual ideas, general laws that lead reason to the discovery of reliable truths, and then does not see a sharp difference between abstract and concrete ideas. If Descartes and Locke speak about knowledge, apparently, in different languages, then the reason for this lies not in the difference in their views, but in the difference in goals. Locke wanted to draw people's attention to experience, and Descartes occupied a more a priori element in human knowledge.

A noticeable, albeit less significant, influence on Locke's views was exerted by the psychology of Hobbes, from whom, for example, the order of presentation of the "Experience" was borrowed. In describing the comparison processes, Locke follows Hobbes; together with him, he asserts that relations do not belong to things, but are the result of comparison, that there are countless relations, that more important relations are identity and difference, equality and inequality, similarity and dissimilarity, contiguity in space and time, cause and action. In a treatise on language, that is, in the third book of Experience, Locke develops the thoughts of Hobbes. In the doctrine of the will, Locke is in the strongest dependence on Hobbes; together with the latter, he teaches that the desire for pleasure is the only one that passes through our entire psychic life and that the concept of good and evil is completely different for different people. In the doctrine of free will, Locke, along with Hobbes, argues that the will tilts towards the strongest desire and that freedom is a force that belongs to the soul, and not to the will.

Finally, a third influence on Locke should be recognized, namely the influence of Newton. So, in Locke, one cannot see an independent and original thinker; for all the great merits of his book, there is some ambiguity and incompleteness in it, stemming from the fact that he was influenced by such different thinkers; that is why Locke's criticism in many cases (for example, criticism of the idea of \u200b\u200bsubstance and causality) stops halfway.

The general principles of Locke's worldview were as follows. The eternal, infinite, wise and good God created a world limited in space and time; the world reflects in itself the infinite properties of God and represents an infinite variety. The greatest gradualness is observed in the nature of individual objects and individuals; from the most imperfect they pass imperceptibly to the most perfect being. All these beings are in interaction; the world is a harmonious cosmos in which each creature acts according to its nature and has its own definite purpose. The purpose of man is the knowledge and glorification of God and, thanks to this, bliss in this and the next world.

Most of the "Experience" now has only historical significance, although Locke's influence on later psychology is undeniable. Although Locke, as a political writer, often had to deal with issues of morality, he does not have a special treatise on this branch of philosophy. His thoughts about morality are distinguished by the same properties as his psychological and epistemological reflections: there is a lot of common sense, but there is no true originality and height. In a letter to Molyneux (1696), Locke calls the Gospel such an excellent treatise on morality that one can excuse the human mind if it does not engage in research of this kind. “Virtue,” says Locke, “viewed as a duty, is nothing more than the will of God found by natural reason; therefore it has the force of law; as for its content, it exclusively consists in the requirement to do good to oneself and to others; on the contrary, vice is nothing more than the desire to harm oneself and others. The greatest vice is the one with the most disastrous consequences; therefore all crimes against society are much more important than crimes against a private person. Many actions that would be completely innocent in a state of loneliness naturally turn out to be vicious in the social order. " Elsewhere, Locke says that "it is human nature to seek happiness and avoid suffering." Happiness consists in everything that pleases and satisfies the spirit, suffering - in everything that disturbs, upsets and torments the spirit. To prefer a passing pleasure to pleasure over a long, permanent one is to be the enemy of your own happiness.

John Locke's pedagogical ideas:

He was one of the founders of the empirical-sensationalist theory of knowledge. Locke believed that a person does not have innate ideas. He is born as a "blank board" and is ready to perceive the world around him through his feelings through internal experience - reflection.

"Nine-tenths of people are made as they are only through education." The most important tasks of education: character development, the development of will, moral discipline. The purpose of upbringing is to educate a gentleman who knows how to conduct his affairs intelligently and prudently, an enterprising person, refined in handling. Locke represented the ultimate goal of upbringing in providing a healthy mind in a healthy body (“here is a short but complete description of a happy state in this world”).

Developed a gentleman education system based on pragmatism and rationalism. The main feature of the system is utilitarianism: each object must prepare for life. Locke does not separate education from moral and physical education. Upbringing should consist in the fact that the brought up physical and moral habits, the habits of reason and will. The goal of physical education is to form out of the body an instrument as obedient to the spirit as possible; the goal of spiritual education and training is to create a direct spirit that would act in all cases in accordance with the dignity of an intelligent being. Locke insists that children accustom themselves to self-observation, self-control and self-victory.

Raising a gentleman includes (all components of education should be interconnected):

Physical Education: Promotes a healthy body, courage and perseverance. Health promotion, fresh air, simple food, hardening, strict regimen, exercise, games.
Mental education should be subject to the development of character, the formation of an educated business person.
Religious education must be directed not at teaching children to rituals, but at forming love and respect for God as a supreme being.
Moral education is to cultivate the ability to deny yourself pleasures, go against your inclinations and unswervingly follow the advice of reason. Development of graceful manners, skills of gallant behavior.
Labor education consists in mastering the craft (carpentry, turning). Labor prevents the possibility of harmful indolence.

The main didactic principle is to rely on the interest and curiosity of children in teaching. The main educational tool is example and environment. Stable, positive habits are nurtured by gentle words and gentle suggestions. Physical punishment is used only in exceptional cases of audacious and systematic disobedience. The development of will occurs through the ability to endure difficulties, which is facilitated by physical exercise and tempering.

Learning content: reading, writing, drawing, geography, ethics, history, chronology, accounting, mother tongue, French, Latin, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, fencing, horseback riding, dancing, morality, the main parts of civil law, rhetoric, logic, natural philosophy, physics - this is what an educated person should know. To this should be added the knowledge of a certain craft.

The philosophical, socio-political and pedagogical ideas of John Locke constituted an entire era in the formation of pedagogical science. His thoughts were developed and enriched by the progressive thinkers of France in the 18th century, found a continuation in the pedagogical activities of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and the Russian enlighteners of the 18th century, who called him with their lips among the "wise teachers of mankind."

Locke pointed out the shortcomings of his modern pedagogical system: for example, he rebelled against Latin speeches and poems that were supposed to be composed by students. Teaching should be visual, material, clear, without school terminology. But Locke is not the enemy of classical languages; he is only opposed to the system of their teaching, which was practiced in his time. Due to some dryness inherent in Locke in general, he does not give poetry much space in the system of education he recommends.

Locke borrowed some of his views from Thoughts on Education and brought them to extreme conclusions in his Emile.

John Locke's political ideas:

The natural state is a state of complete freedom and equality in the management of one's property and one's life. It is a state of peace and goodwill. The law of nature prescribes peace and security.

The right to property is a natural right; at the same time, Locke understood property as life, freedom and property, including intellectual property. Freedom, according to Locke, is the freedom of a person to dispose and dispose of, as he pleases, his personality, his actions ... and all his property. " By freedom he understood, in particular, the right to freedom of movement, free labor and its results.

Freedom, Locke explains, exists where everyone is recognized as "the owner of his own personality." The right of freedom, therefore, means that which was only implied in the right to life, was present as its deepest content. The right of freedom denies any relationship of personal dependence (the relationship between a slave and a slave owner, a serf and a landowner, a slave and a master, a patron and a client). If the right to life according to Locke prohibited slavery as an economic relation, he interpreted even biblical slavery only as the right of the owner to entrust the slave with hard work, and not the right to life and freedom, then the right of freedom, ultimately, means the denial of political slavery, or despotism. The point is that in a reasonable society, no person can be a slave, vassal or servant of not only the head of state, but also the state itself or private, state, even his own property (that is, property in the modern sense, which differs from Locke's understanding ). A person can only serve law and justice.

Supporter of constitutional monarchy and social contract theory.

Locke is a theorist of civil society and the rule of law democratic state (for the accountability of the king and lords to the law).

The first to suggest the principle of separation of powers: legislative, executive and federal. The federal government deals with the declaration of war and peace, diplomatic matters and participation in alliances and coalitions.

The state was created to guarantee natural law (life, freedom, property) and laws (peace and security), it must not encroach on natural law and the law, it must be organized so that natural law is reliably guaranteed.

Developed ideas for a democratic revolution. Locke considered it legitimate and necessary for the uprising of the people against the tyrannical government, encroaching on the natural rights and freedom of the people.

Best known for developing the principles of a democratic revolution. "The right of the people to revolt against tyranny" is most consistently developed by Locke in his work "Reflections on the Glorious Revolution of 1688", which was written with the openly expressed intention to "establish the throne of the great restorer of English freedom, King William, remove his rights from the will of the people and protect the English people for their new revolution. "

Foundations of the rule of law according to John Locke:

As a political writer, Locke is the founder of a school that seeks to build a state at the beginning of personal freedom. Robert Filmer in his "Patriarch" preached the unlimitedness of royal power, taking it out of the patriarchal principle; Locke rebels against this view and bases the origin of the state on the assumption of a mutual agreement concluded with the consent of all citizens, and they, refusing the right to personally protect their property and punish violators of the law, leave it to the state. The government is made up of people elected by consensus to oversee the strict observance of laws established to preserve general freedom and welfare. When entering the state, a person obeys only these laws, and not the arbitrariness and whim of unlimited power. The state of despotism is worse than the state of nature, because in the latter, everyone can defend his right, but before the despot he does not have this freedom. Breaking the treaty empowers the people to claim back their sovereign right. The internal form of state structure is consistently derived from these basic provisions.

The state gains power:

1. To issue laws determining the amount of punishment for various crimes, that is, the legislative power;
2. To punish crimes committed by members of the union, that is, the executive power;
3. To punish the insults inflicted on the union by external enemies, that is, the right of war and peace.

All this, however, is given to the state solely for the protection of the property of citizens.

Locke considers the legislature to be supreme, for it commands the rest. It is sacred and inviolable in the hands of those persons to whom it is entrusted by society, but it is not unlimited:

1. It does not have absolute, arbitrary power over the life and property of citizens. This follows from the fact that it is endowed with only those rights that are transferred to it by each member of society, and in the natural state, no one has arbitrary power either over his own life or over the life and property of others. Human innate rights are limited to what is necessary to protect oneself and others; no one can give more to the government.

2. The legislator cannot act by private and arbitrary decisions; he must rule solely on the basis of constant laws, for all the same. Arbitrary power is completely incompatible with the essence of civil society, not only in a monarchy, but in any other form of government.

3. The supreme power has no right to take from anyone a part of his property without his consent, since people unite in societies to protect property, and the latter would be in a worse condition than before if the government could dispose of it arbitrarily. Therefore, the government has no right to collect taxes without the consent of the majority of the people or their representatives.

4. The legislator cannot transfer his power to the wrong hands; this right belongs to the people alone. Since legislation does not require constant activity, in well-organized states it is entrusted to a collection of persons who, converging, issue laws and then, diverging, obey their own decrees.

Execution, on the other hand, cannot be stopped; therefore it is awarded to the permanent bodies. The latter, for the most part, is granted the allied power ("federative power", that is, the right of war and peace); although it differs significantly from the executive one, since both operate through the same social forces, it would be inconvenient to establish different organs for them. The king is the head of the executive and federal government. It has certain prerogatives only to contribute to the good of society in cases unforeseen by law.

Locke is considered the founder of the theory of constitutionalism, as far as it is conditioned by the difference and separation of powers, legislative and executive.

State and religion according to John Locke:

In Letters on toleration and Reasonableness of Christianity, as delivered in the scriptures, Locke ardently preaches the idea of \u200b\u200btolerance. He believes that the essence of Christianity lies in faith in the Messiah, which the apostles put in the foreground, demanding it with equal zeal from both Jewish and Gentile Christians. From this Locke concludes that one should not give an exclusive advantage to any one church, because all Christian confessions converge in faith in the Messiah. Muslims, Jews, pagans can be impeccably moral people, although this morality should cost them more work than believing Christians. Locke insists in the strongest possible way on the separation of church and state. The state, according to Locke, only then has the right to judge the conscience and faith of its subjects when the religious community leads to immoral and criminal acts.

In a draft written in 1688, Locke presented his ideal of a true Christian community, unaffected by any worldly relations and confessional disputes. And here he also takes revelation as the basis of religion, but makes it an indispensable duty to tolerate any receding opinion. The way of worship is provided for everyone's choice. Locke makes an exception from the stated views for Catholics and atheists. He did not tolerate Catholics because they have their own head in Rome and therefore, as a state within a state, they are dangerous to public peace and freedom. He could not reconcile with atheists because he firmly adhered to the concept of revelation, which is denied by those who deny God.

Bibliography of John Locke:

Thoughts about education. 1691 ... What a gentleman should study. 1703.
The same "Thoughts on education" with rev. noticed typos and working footnotes
Investigation of the opinion of Father Malebranche ... 1694. Comments on the books of Norris ... 1693.
Letters. 1697-1699.
The censor's dying speech. 1664.
Experiments on the law of nature. 1664.
Experience of religious tolerance. 1667.
Message about religious tolerance. 1686.
Two treatises on government. 1689.
An experience about human understanding. (1689)
Elements of natural philosophy. 1698.
Discourse on miracles. 1701.

The most important works of John Locke:

A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689).
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690).
The Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690).
Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693).

Interesting facts about John Locke:

Locke became one of the founders of the "Contractual" theory of the origin of the state.

One of the key characters of the cult television series Lost is named after John Locke.

The surname Locke as a pseudonym was taken by one of the heroes of the cycle of fantasy novels by Orson Scott Card "Ender's Game". In the Russian translation, the English-language name "Locke" is incorrectly rendered as "Loki".

The surname Locke is the main character in Michelangelo Antonioni's film "Profession: Reporter" 1975.

Locke's pedagogical ideas influenced the spiritual life of Russia in the middle of the 18th century.

Westminster School [d]

Locke's theoretical constructions were also noted by later philosophers such as David Hume and Immanuel Kant. Locke was the first thinker to reveal personality through the continuity of consciousness. He also postulated that the mind is a "blank slate", that is, contrary to Cartesian philosophy, Locke argued that people are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience gained through sensory perception.

Encyclopedic YouTube

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  So, Locke differs from Descartes only in that he recognizes, instead of the innate potential of individual ideas, general laws that lead the mind to the discovery of reliable truths, and then does not see a sharp difference between abstract and concrete ideas. If Descartes and Locke speak about knowledge, apparently, in different languages, then the reason for this lies not in the difference in their views, but in the difference in goals. Locke wanted to draw people's attention to experience, and Descartes occupied a more a priori element in human knowledge.

  A noticeable, albeit less significant, influence on Locke's views was exerted by the psychology of Hobbes, from whom, for example, the order of presentation of "Experience" was borrowed. In describing the comparison processes, Locke follows Hobbes; together with him, he asserts that relations do not belong to things, but are the result of comparison, that there are countless relations, that more important relations are identity and difference, equality and inequality, similarity and dissimilarity, contiguity in space and time, cause and action. In a treatise on language, that is, in the third book of Experience, Locke develops the thoughts of Hobbes. In the doctrine of the will, Locke is in the strongest dependence on Hobbes; together with the latter, he teaches that the desire for pleasure is the only one that passes through our entire psychic life and that the concept of good and evil is completely different for different people. In the doctrine of free will, Locke, along with Hobbes, argues that the will tilts towards the strongest desire and that freedom is a force that belongs to the soul, and not to the will.

  Finally, a third influence on Locke should be recognized, namely the influence of Newton. So, in Locke one cannot see an independent and original thinker; for all the great merits of his book, there is a certain ambiguity and incompleteness in it, stemming from the fact that he was under the influence of such different thinkers; that is why Locke's criticism in many cases (for example, criticism of the idea of \u200b\u200bsubstance and causality) stops halfway.

  The general principles of Locke's worldview were as follows. The eternal, infinite, wise and good God created a world limited in space and time; the world reflects in itself the infinite properties of God and is an infinite variety. The greatest gradualness is observed in the nature of individual objects and individuals; from the most imperfect they pass imperceptibly to the most perfect being. All these beings are in interaction; the world is a harmonious cosmos in which each creature acts according to its nature and has its own definite purpose. The purpose of man is the knowledge and glorification of God and, thanks to this, bliss in this and the next world.

  Most of the "Experience" now has only historical significance, although Locke's influence on later psychology is undeniable. Although Locke, as a political writer, often had to deal with issues of morality, he does not have a special treatise on this branch of philosophy. His thoughts about morality are distinguished by the same properties as his psychological and epistemological reflections: a lot of common sense, but there is no true originality and height. In a letter to Molyneux (1696), Locke calls the Gospel such an excellent treatise on morality that one can excuse the human mind if it does not engage in research of this kind. "Virtue"Locke says “Regarded as a duty, is nothing more than the will of God, found by natural reason; therefore it has the force of law; as for its content, it exclusively consists in the requirement to do good to oneself and to others; on the contrary, vice is nothing more than the desire to harm oneself and others. The greatest vice is the one with the most disastrous consequences; therefore all crimes against society are much more important than crimes against a private person. Many actions that would be completely innocent in a state of loneliness naturally turn out to be vicious in the social order "... Elsewhere, Locke says that "It is human nature to seek happiness and avoid suffering"... Happiness consists in everything that pleases and satisfies the spirit, suffering - in everything that disturbs, upsets and torments the spirit. To prefer a passing pleasure to pleasure over a long, permanent one is to be the enemy of your own happiness.

  Pedagogical ideas

  He was one of the founders of the empirical-sensationalist theory of knowledge. Locke believed that a person does not have innate ideas. He is born as a "blank board" and ready to perceive the world around him through his feelings through internal experience - reflection.

  "Nine-tenths of people are made as they are only through education." The most important tasks of upbringing: character development, willpower, moral discipline. The purpose of upbringing is to educate a gentleman who knows how to conduct his affairs intelligently and prudently, an enterprising person, refined in handling. Locke represented the ultimate goal of upbringing in providing a healthy mind in a healthy body (“here is a short but complete description of a happy state in this world”).

  Developed a gentleman education system based on pragmatism and rationalism. The main feature of the system is utilitarianism: each object must prepare for life. Locke does not separate education from moral and physical education. Upbringing should consist in the fact that the brought up physical and moral habits, the habits of reason and will. The goal of physical education is to form out of the body an instrument as obedient to the spirit as possible; the goal of spiritual education and training is to create a direct spirit that would act in all cases in accordance with the dignity of an intelligent being. Locke insists that children accustom themselves to self-observation, self-control and self-victory.

  Education of a gentleman includes (all components of education must be interconnected):

  • Physical Education: Promotes a healthy body, courage and perseverance. Health promotion, fresh air, simple food, hardening, strict regimen, exercise, games.
  • Mental education should be subject to the development of character, the formation of an educated business person.
  • Religious education must be directed not at teaching children to rituals, but at forming love and respect for God as a supreme being.
  • Moral education is to cultivate the ability to deny yourself pleasures, go against your inclinations and unswervingly follow the advice of reason. Development of graceful manners, skills of gallant behavior.
  • Labor education consists in mastering the craft (carpentry, turning). Labor prevents the possibility of harmful indolence.

  The main didactic principle is to rely on the interest and curiosity of children in teaching. The main educational tool is example and environment. Stable, positive habits are nurtured by gentle words and gentle suggestions. Physical punishment is used only in exceptional cases of audacious and systematic disobedience. The development of will occurs through the ability to endure difficulties, which is facilitated by physical exercise and tempering.

  Learning content: reading, writing, drawing, geography, ethics, history, chronology, accounting, mother tongue, French, Latin, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, fencing, horse riding, dancing, morality, the main parts of civil law, rhetoric, logic, natural philosophy, physics - this is what an educated person should know. To this should be added the knowledge of a craft.

  The philosophical, socio-political and pedagogical ideas of John Locke constituted an entire era in the formation of pedagogical science. His thoughts were developed and enriched by the progressive thinkers of France in the 18th century, found a continuation in the pedagogical activities of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and the Russian enlighteners of the 18th century, who, through the lips of MV Lomonosov, called him among the "wise teachers of mankind."

  Locke pointed out the shortcomings of his modern pedagogical system: for example, he rebelled against Latin speeches and poems that were supposed to be composed by students. Teaching should be visual, material, clear, without school terminology. But Locke is not the enemy of classical languages; he is only opposed to the system of their teaching, which was practiced in his time. Due to some dryness inherent in Locke in general, he does not give poetry much space in the system of education he recommends.

  Some of Locke's views from Thoughts on Education were borrowed by Rousseau and brought to extreme conclusions in his Emile.

  Political ideas

  Best known for developing the principles of the democratic revolution. "The right of the people to revolt against tyranny" is most consistently developed by Locke in the work "Reflections on the Glorious Revolution of 1688", which was written with an openly expressed intention "To establish the throne of the great restorer of English freedom, King William, to remove his rights from the will of the people and to protect the English people before the light for their new revolution."

  Foundations of the rule of law

  As a political writer, Locke is the founder of a school that seeks to build a state at the beginning of personal freedom. Robert Filmer in his "Patriarch" preached the unlimitedness of royal power, taking it out of the patriarchal principle; Locke rebels against this view and bases the origin of the state on the assumption of a mutual agreement concluded with the consent of all citizens, and they, refusing the right to personally protect their property and punish violators of the law, leave it to the state. The government is made up of people elected by consensus to oversee the strict observance of laws established to preserve general freedom and welfare. When entering the state, a person obeys only these laws, and not the arbitrariness and whim of unlimited power. The state of despotism is worse than the state of nature, because in the latter, everyone can defend his right, but before the despot he does not have this freedom. The violation of the treaty empowers the people to claim back their sovereign right. The internal form of state structure is consistently derived from these basic provisions. The state gains power:

  All this, however, is given to the state solely for the protection of the property of citizens. Locke considers the legislature to be supreme, for it commands the rest. It is sacred and inviolable in the hands of those persons to whom it is entrusted by society, but it is not unlimited:

  Execution, on the other hand, cannot be stopped; therefore it is awarded to the permanent bodies. The latter, for the most part, is granted the allied power ( Federative power, that is, the law of war and peace); although it differs significantly from the executive one, since both operate through the same social forces, it would be inconvenient to establish different organs for them. The king is the head of the executive and federal government. It has certain prerogatives only to contribute to the good of society in cases unforeseen by law.

  Locke is considered the founder of the theory of constitutionalism, as far as it is conditioned by the difference and separation of powers, legislative and executive.

  State and religion

  In a draft written in 1688, Locke presented his ideal of a true Christian community, unaffected by any worldly relations and confessional disputes. And here he also takes revelation as the foundation of religion, but makes it an indispensable duty to tolerate any receding opinion. The way of worship is provided for everyone's choice. Locke makes an exception from the stated views for Catholics and atheists. He did not tolerate Catholics because they have their own head in Rome and therefore, as a state within a state, they are dangerous to public peace and freedom. He could not reconcile with atheists because he firmly adhered to the concept of revelation, which is denied by those who deny God.

  Bibliography

  • Thoughts about education. 1691 ... what a gentleman should study. 1703.
  • The same "Thoughts on education" with rev. noticed typos and working footnotes
  • Study of the opinion of Father Malebranche ... 1694. Notes on the books of Norris ... 1693.
  • An experience about human understanding. (1689) (translation: A. N. Savina)

  english John locke

  british educator and philosopher, representative of empiricism and liberalism

  short biography

  An English philosopher, an outstanding thinker of the Enlightenment, a teacher, theorist of liberalism, a representative of empiricism, a man whose ideas greatly influenced the development of political philosophy, epistemology, had a certain impact on the formation of views, Voltaire and other philosophers, American revolutionaries.

  Locke was born in western England, near Bristol, in the small town of Rington on August 29, 1632, the son of a legal official. Puritan parents raised their son in an atmosphere of strict observance of religious rules. The recommendation of an influential acquaintance of his father helped Locke get into Westminster School in 1646 - the most prestigious school in the country at the time, where he was one of the best students. In 1652, John continued his education at Christ Church College, Oxford University, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1656, and three years later - a master's degree. His talent and diligence were rewarded with an offer to stay at the school and teach philosophy, ancient Greek. During these years, his more Aristotelian philosophy was interested in medicine, the study of which he devoted a lot of effort. Nevertheless, he failed to obtain the coveted degree of doctor of medicine.

  John Locke was 34 years old when fate brought him together with a man who greatly influenced his entire further biography - Lord Ashley, later Earl of Shaftesbury. At first Locke in 1667 was with him as a family doctor and educator of his son, later he served as a secretary, and this prompted him to get involved in politics. Shaftesbury gave him tremendous support, introducing him into political and economic circles, giving him the opportunity to take part in government himself. In 1668 Locke became a member of the Royal Society of London, the next year he is a member of its Council. He also does not forget about other types of activity: for example, in 1671 he conceived the idea of \u200b\u200ba work to which he would devote 16 years and which would become the main one in his philosophical legacy - "Experience on Human Understanding", dedicated to the study of the cognitive potential of man.

  In 1672 and 1679 Locke served in the highest government institutions in prestigious positions, but at the same time his advancement in the world of politics was in direct proportion to the success of his patron. Health problems forced J. Locke to spend in France a period from the end of 1675 to the middle of 1679. In 1683, following the Earl of Shaftesbury and fearing political persecution, he moved to Holland. There he struck up a friendly relationship with William of Orange; Locke exerts a noticeable ideological influence on him and becomes a participant in the preparation of a coup, as a result of which William becomes king of England.

  The changes allow Locke to return to England in 1689. In 1691 Ots became his place of residence, the Mesham estate, which belonged to his acquaintance, the wife of a member of parliament: he accepted her invitation to settle in a country house, since suffered from asthma for many years. During these years, Locke is not only in government service, but also takes part in the upbringing of Lady Mesham's son, devotes a lot of energy to literature and science, completes the "Experience on the Human Mind", prepares for publication previously conceived works, including "Two Treatises on Government ”,“ Thoughts on education ”,“ Reasonableness of Christianity ”. In 1700 Locke decides to resign from all positions held; On October 28, 1704, he was gone.

  Biography from Wikipedia

  Born August 29, 1632 in the small town of Rington in the west of England, in the county of Somerset, near Bristol, in the family of a provincial lawyer.

  In 1646, on the recommendation of the commander of his father (who during the Civil War was a captain in the parliamentary army of Cromwell), he was enrolled in Westminster School (the country's leading educational institution at that time). In 1652, Locke, one of the best students of the school, enters Oxford University ... In 1656 he received a bachelor's degree, and in 1658 - a master's degree from this university.

  In 1667, Locke accepts the offer of Lord Ashley (later Earl of Shaftesbury) to take the place of his son's family doctor and educator, and then actively participates in political activities. Begins to create the "Epistles on Tolerance" (published: 1st - in 1689, 2nd and 3rd - in 1692 (these three - anonymously), 4th - in 1706, after Locke's death) ...

  On behalf of the Earl of Shaftesbury, Locke participated in drafting the Constitution for the province of Carolina in North America ("Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina").

  1668 Locke is elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1669 - a member of its Council. Locke's main areas of interest were natural science, medicine, politics, economics, pedagogy, the attitude of the state to the church, the problem of religious tolerance and freedom of conscience.

  1671 - decides to carry out a thorough study of the cognitive abilities of the human mind. This was the idea of \u200b\u200bthe main work of the scientist - "Experience of Human Understanding", on which he worked for 19 years.

  1672 and 1679 - Locke is promoted to various prominent positions in the highest government offices in England. But Locke's career depended directly on the ups and downs of Shaftesbury. From the end of 1675 to the middle of 1679, due to deteriorating health, Locke was in France.

  In 1683 Locke emigrated to Holland following Shaftesbury. In the years 1688-1689 came the denouement that put an end to Locke's wanderings. A glorious revolution took place, William III of Orange was proclaimed king of England. In 1688 Locke returned to his homeland.

  In the 1690s, along with the government service, Locke again carried out an extensive scientific and literary activity. In 1690, The Experience on Human Understanding, Two Treatises on Government, in 1693, Thoughts on Education, in 1695, The Reasonableness of Christianity, were published.

  Theory of knowledge

  The basis of our knowledge is experience, which consists of single perceptions. Perceptions are divided into sensations (the action of an object on our senses) and reflection. Ideas arise in the mind as a result of abstraction of perceptions. The principle of building the mind as a "tabula rasa", which gradually reflects information from the senses. Empirical principle: the primacy of sensation over reason.

  

  The philosophy of Locke was extremely influenced by Descartes; Descartes's doctrine of knowledge underlies all of Locke's epistemological views. Accurate knowledge, Descartes taught, consists in the understanding by the mind of a clear and obvious relationship between clear and separate ideas; where reason, through comparison of ideas, does not perceive such relations, there can be only opinion, not knowledge; reliable truths are obtained by reason directly or through inference from other truths, why knowledge is intuitive and deductive; deduction is carried out not through a syllogism, but through bringing the compared ideas to a point whereby the relationship between them becomes obvious; deductive knowledge, which is composed of intuition, is quite reliable, but since it at the same time depends in some respects on memory, it is less reliable than intuitive knowledge. In all this Locke fully agrees with Descartes; he assumes the Cartesian position that the most certain truth is the intuitive truth of our own existence.

  In the doctrine of substance, Locke agrees with Descartes that a phenomenon is inconceivable without substance, that substance is found in signs, and is not cognized by itself; he objects only to Descartes' position that the soul constantly thinks, that thinking is the main feature of the soul. Agreeing with the Cartesian doctrine of the origin of truths, Locke disagrees with Descartes on the issue of the origin of ideas. According to Locke, developed in detail in the second book of Experience, all complex ideas are gradually developed by the mind from simple ideas, and simple ones come from external or internal experience. In the first book of Experience, Locke explains in detail and critically why one cannot suppose another source of ideas as external and internal experience. Having listed the signs by which ideas are recognized as congenital, he shows that these signs do not at all prove congenital. For example, universal recognition does not prove innate if it is possible to point to a different explanation of the fact of universal recognition, and the very universality of recognition of a known principle is questionable. Even if we assume that some principles are revealed by our mind, this does not at all prove their innateness. Locke does not at all deny, however, that our cognitive activity is determined by certain laws inherent in the human spirit. He recognizes, together with Descartes, two elements of knowledge - innate beginnings and external data; the former include reason and will. Reason is the ability through which we receive and form ideas, both simple and complex, as well as the ability to perceive certain relationships between ideas.

  So, Locke differs from Descartes only in that he recognizes, instead of the innate potentials of individual ideas, general laws that lead the mind to the discovery of reliable truths, and then does not see a sharp difference between abstract and concrete ideas. If Descartes and Locke speak about knowledge, apparently, in different languages, then the reason for this lies not in the difference in their views, but in the difference in goals. Locke wanted to draw people's attention to experience, and Descartes occupied a more a priori element in human knowledge.

  A noticeable, albeit less significant, influence on Locke's views was exerted by the psychology of Hobbes, from whom, for example, the order of presentation of the "Experience" was borrowed. In describing the comparison processes, Locke follows Hobbes; together with him, he asserts that relations do not belong to things, but are the result of comparison, that there are countless relations, that more important relations are identity and difference, equality and inequality, similarity and dissimilarity, contiguity in space and time, cause and action. In a treatise on language, that is, in the third book of Experience, Locke develops the thoughts of Hobbes. In the doctrine of the will, Locke is in the strongest dependence on Hobbes; together with the latter, he teaches that the desire for pleasure is the only one that passes through our entire psychic life and that the concept of good and evil is completely different for different people. In the doctrine of free will, Locke, along with Hobbes, argues that the will tilts towards the strongest desire and that freedom is a force that belongs to the soul, and not to the will.

  Finally, a third influence on Locke should be recognized, namely the influence of Newton. So, in Locke, one cannot see an independent and original thinker; for all the great merits of his book, there is some ambiguity and incompleteness in it, stemming from the fact that he was influenced by such different thinkers; that is why Locke's criticism in many cases (for example, criticism of the idea of \u200b\u200bsubstance and causality) stops halfway.

  The general principles of Locke's worldview were as follows. The eternal, infinite, wise and good God created a world limited in space and time; the world reflects in itself the infinite properties of God and is an infinite variety. The greatest gradualness is observed in the nature of individual objects and individuals; from the most imperfect they pass imperceptibly to the most perfect being. All these beings are in interaction; the world is a harmonious cosmos in which each creature acts according to its nature and has its own definite purpose. The purpose of man is the knowledge and glorification of God and, thanks to this, bliss in this and the next world.

  Most of the "Experience" now has only historical significance, although Locke's influence on later psychology is undeniable. Although Locke, as a political writer, often had to deal with issues of morality, he does not have a special treatise on this branch of philosophy. His thoughts about morality are distinguished by the same properties as his psychological and epistemological reflections: a lot of common sense, but there is no true originality and height. In a letter to Molyneux (1696), Locke calls the Gospel such an excellent treatise on morality that one can excuse the human mind if it does not engage in research of this kind. "Virtue"Locke says “Regarded as a duty, is nothing more than the will of God found by natural reason; therefore it has the force of law; as for its content, it exclusively consists in the requirement to do good to oneself and to others; on the contrary, vice is nothing more than the desire to harm oneself and others. The greatest vice is the one with the most disastrous consequences; therefore all crimes against society are much more important than crimes against a private person. Many actions that would be completely innocent in a state of loneliness naturally turn out to be vicious in the social order "... Elsewhere, Locke says that "It is human nature to seek happiness and avoid suffering"... Happiness consists in everything that pleases and satisfies the spirit, suffering - in everything that disturbs, upsets and torments the spirit. To prefer a passing pleasure to pleasure over a long, permanent one is to be the enemy of your own happiness.

  Pedagogical ideas

  He was one of the founders of the empirical-sensationalist theory of knowledge. Locke believed that a person does not have innate ideas. He is born as a "blank board" and is ready to perceive the world around him through his feelings through internal experience - reflection.

  "Nine-tenths of people are made as they are only through education." The most important tasks of education: character development, the development of will, moral discipline. The purpose of upbringing is to educate a gentleman who knows how to conduct his affairs intelligently and prudently, an enterprising person, refined in handling. Locke represented the ultimate goal of upbringing in providing a healthy mind in a healthy body (“here is a short but complete description of a happy state in this world”).

  

  Developed a gentleman education system based on pragmatism and rationalism. The main feature of the system is utilitarianism: each object must prepare for life. Locke does not separate education from moral and physical education. Upbringing should consist in the fact that the brought up physical and moral habits, the habits of reason and will. The goal of physical education is to form out of the body an instrument as obedient to the spirit as possible; the goal of spiritual education and training is to create a direct spirit that would act in all cases in accordance with the dignity of an intelligent being. Locke insists that children accustom themselves to self-observation, self-control and self-victory.

  Education of a gentleman includes (all components of education must be interconnected):

  • Physical Education: Promotes a healthy body, courage and perseverance. Health promotion, fresh air, simple food, hardening, strict regimen, exercise, games.
  • Mental education should be subject to the development of character, the formation of an educated business person.
  • Religious education must be directed not at teaching children to rituals, but at forming love and respect for God as a supreme being.
  • Moral education is to cultivate the ability to deny yourself pleasures, go against your inclinations and unswervingly follow the advice of reason. Development of graceful manners, skills of gallant behavior.
  • Labor education consists in mastering the craft (carpentry, turning). Labor prevents the possibility of harmful indolence.

  The main didactic principle is to rely on the interest and curiosity of children in teaching. The main educational tool is example and environment. Stable, positive habits are nurtured by gentle words and gentle suggestions. Physical punishment is used only in exceptional cases of audacious and systematic disobedience. The development of will occurs through the ability to endure difficulties, which is facilitated by physical exercise and tempering.

  Learning content: reading, writing, drawing, geography, ethics, history, chronology, accounting, mother tongue, French, Latin, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, fencing, horseback riding, dancing, morality, the main parts of civil law, rhetoric, logic, natural philosophy, physics - this is what an educated person should know. To this should be added the knowledge of a certain craft.

  The philosophical, socio-political and pedagogical ideas of John Locke constituted an entire era in the formation of pedagogical science. His thoughts were developed and enriched by the progressive thinkers of France in the 18th century, found a continuation in the pedagogical activities of Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and the Russian enlighteners of the 18th century, who, through the lips of MV Lomonosov, called him among the "wise teachers of mankind."

  Locke pointed out the shortcomings of his modern pedagogical system: for example, he rebelled against Latin speeches and poems that were supposed to be composed by students. Teaching should be visual, material, clear, without school terminology. But Locke is not the enemy of classical languages; he is only opposed to the system of their teaching, which was practiced in his time. Due to some dryness inherent in Locke in general, he does not give poetry much space in the system of education he recommends.

  Some of Locke's views from "Thoughts on Education" were borrowed by Rousseau and in his "Emile" he brought them to extreme conclusions.

  Political ideas

  • The natural state is a state of complete freedom and equality in the management of one's property and one's life. It is a state of peace and goodwill. The law of nature prescribes peace and security.
  • The right to property is a natural right; at the same time, Locke understood property as life, freedom and property, including intellectual property. Freedom, according to Locke, is the freedom of a person to dispose and dispose of, as he pleases, his personality, his actions ... and all his property. " By freedom he understood, in particular, the right to freedom of movement, free labor and its results.
  • Freedom, Locke explains, exists where everyone is recognized as "the owner of their own personality." The right to freedom, therefore, means that which was only implied in the right to life, was present as its deepest content. The right of freedom denies any relationship of personal dependence (the relationship between a slave and a slave owner, a serf and a landowner, a slave and a master, a patron and a client). If the right to life according to Locke prohibited slavery as an economic relation, he interpreted even biblical slavery only as the right of the owner to entrust the slave with hard work, and not the right to life and freedom, then the right of freedom, ultimately, means the denial of political slavery, or despotism. The point is that in a reasonable society, no person can be a slave, vassal or servant of not only the head of state, but also the state itself or private, state, even his own property (that is, property in the modern sense, which differs from Locke's understanding ). A person can only serve law and justice.
  • Supporter of constitutional monarchy and social contract theory.
  • Locke is a theorist of civil society and the rule of law democratic state (for the accountability of the king and lords to the law).
  • The first to suggest the principle of separation of powers: legislative, executive and federal. The federal government deals with the declaration of war and peace, diplomatic matters and participation in alliances and coalitions.
  • The state was created to guarantee natural law (life, freedom, property) and laws (peace and security), it must not encroach on natural law and the law, it must be organized so that natural law is reliably guaranteed.
  • Developed ideas for a democratic revolution. Locke considered it legitimate and necessary for the uprising of the people against the tyrannical government, encroaching on the natural rights and freedom of the people.
  • Despite this, Locke was one of the largest investors in the British slave trade of his day. He also gave a philosophical justification for the taking of land by the colonists from the North American Indians. His views on economic slavery in modern scientific literature are regarded as an organic continuation of Locke's anthropology, then as evidence of its inconsistency.

  Best known for developing the principles of the democratic revolution. "The right of the people to revolt against tyranny" is most consistently developed by Locke in the work "Reflections on the Glorious Revolution of 1688", which was written with an openly expressed intention "To establish the throne of the great restorer of English freedom, King William, to remove his rights from the will of the people and to protect the English people before the light for their new revolution."

  Foundations of the rule of law

  As a political writer, Locke is the founder of a school that seeks to build a state at the beginning of personal freedom. Robert Filmer in his "Patriarch" preached the unlimitedness of royal power, taking it out of the patriarchal principle; Locke rebels against this view and bases the origin of the state on the assumption of a mutual agreement concluded with the consent of all citizens, and they, refusing the right to personally protect their property and punish violators of the law, leave it to the state. The government is made up of people elected by consensus to oversee the strict observance of laws established to preserve general freedom and welfare. When entering the state, a person obeys only these laws, and not the arbitrariness and caprice of unlimited power. The state of despotism is worse than the state of nature, because in the latter, everyone can defend his right, but before the despot he does not have this freedom. The violation of the treaty empowers the people to claim back their sovereign right. The internal form of state structure is consistently derived from these basic provisions. The state gains power:

  • Issue laws that determine the amount of punishment for various crimes, that is, legislative power;
  • To punish crimes committed by members of the union, that is, the executive power;
  • To punish offenses inflicted on the union by external enemies, that is, the right of war and peace.

  All this, however, is given to the state solely for the protection of the property of citizens. Locke considers the legislature to be supreme, for it commands the rest. It is sacred and inviolable in the hands of those persons to whom it is entrusted by society, but it is not unlimited:

  • It does not have absolute, arbitrary power over the life and property of citizens. This follows from the fact that it is endowed with only those rights that are transferred to it by each member of society, and in the natural state, no one has arbitrary power either over his own life or over the life and property of others. Human innate rights are limited to what is necessary to protect oneself and others; no one can give more to the government.
  • The legislator cannot act by private and arbitrary decisions; he must rule solely on the basis of constant laws, for all the same. Arbitrary power is completely incompatible with the essence of civil society, not only in a monarchy, but in any other form of government.
  • The supreme power has no right to take from anyone a part of his property without his consent, since people are united in societies to protect property, and the latter would be in a worse condition than before if the government could dispose of it arbitrarily. Therefore, the government has no right to collect taxes without the consent of the majority of the people or their representatives.
  • The legislator cannot transfer his power to the wrong hands; this right belongs to the people alone. Since legislation does not require constant activity, in well-organized states it is entrusted to a collection of persons who, converging, issue laws and then, diverging, obey their own decrees.

  Execution, on the other hand, cannot be stopped; therefore it is awarded to the permanent bodies. The latter, for the most part, is granted the allied power ( Federative power, that is, the law of war and peace); although it differs significantly from the executive one, since both operate through the same social forces, it would be inconvenient to establish different organs for them. The king is the head of the executive and federal government. It has certain prerogatives only to contribute to the good of society in cases unforeseen by law.

  Education, law and statehood, which were relevant in the middle of the 17th century. He is the founder of a new political and legal doctrine, which later became known as the "doctrine of early bourgeois liberalism."

  Biography

  Locke was born in 1632 into a Puritan family. Educated at Westminster School and Christ Church College. In college, he began his scientific career as a teacher of Greek and rhetoric. During this period, an acquaintance with the famous naturalist Robert Boyle was struck. Together with him, Locke conducted metrological observations, deeply studied chemistry. Subsequently, John Locke seriously studied medicine and in 1668 became a member of the Royal Society of London.

  In 1667, John Locke met Lord Ashley Cooper. This extraordinary person was in opposition to the royal court and criticized the existing government. John Locke leaves teaching and settles on the estate of Lord Cooper as his friend, companion and personal physician.

  Political intrigues and a failed attempt make Lord Ashley hastily leave his native shores. Following him, John Locke emigrates to Holland. The main ideas that brought fame to the scientist were formed precisely in emigration. The years spent in a foreign country proved to be the most fruitful in Locke's career.

  The changes that took place in England at the end of the 17th century allowed Locke to return to his homeland. The philosopher willingly works with the new government and has held important positions under the new administration for some time. The post of responsible for trade and colonial affairs becomes the last in the career of a scientist. A lung disease forces him to retire, and he spends the rest of his life in the town of Ots, on the estate of his close friends.

  A trace in philosophy

  The main philosophical work as "An Experience of Human Understanding." The treatise reveals the system of empirical (experimental) philosophy. The basis for conclusions is not logical inference, but factual experience. This is what John Locke says. The philosophy of such a plan was in contradiction with the existing system of worldview. In this work, the scientist claims that sensory experience is the basis for studying the surrounding world, and only through observation can one obtain reliable, real and obvious knowledge.

  A trace in religion

  The philosopher's scientific works also concern the arrangement of religious institutions that existed at that time in England. Known manuscripts "Defense of Nonconformism" and "Experience of Tolerance", the author of which is John Locke. The main ideas were outlined precisely in these unpublished treatises, and the entire system of the organization of the church, the problem of freedom of conscience and religion was presented in the "Epistle on Tolerance."

  

  In this, the work secures for every person the right to Scientist calls on state institutions to recognize the choice of religion as an inalienable right of every citizen. The true church in its activity, according to the scientist, should be merciful and compassionate towards dissidents; the authority of the church and the doctrine of the church must suppress violence in any form. However, the tolerance of believers should not extend to those who do not recognize the legal laws of the state, deny society and the very existence of God, says John Locke. The main ideas of the “Message of Tolerance” are the equality of rights of all religious communities and the separation of state power from the church.

  "Reasonableness of Christianity as it is presented in the Holy Scriptures" is a later work of the philosopher, in which he affirms the unity of God. Christianity, first of all, is a set of moral norms that every person must adhere to, says John Locke. The philosopher's works in the field of religion enriched religious teachings with two new directions - English deism and latitude-dinarism - the doctrine of religious tolerance.

  

  A trace in the theory of state and law

  J. Locke outlined his vision of the structure of a just society in his work "Two treatises on government." The basis for the essay was the doctrine of the emergence of the state from the "natural" society of people. According to the scientist, at the beginning of existence, mankind did not know wars, everyone was equal and "no one had more than the other." However, in such a society, there were no controlling bodies that would eliminate differences, resolve property disputes, and administer a fair trial. In order to ensure the formation of a political community - the state. Peaceful formation of state institutions based on the consent of all people is the basis for the creation of a state system. This is what John Locke says.

  

  The main ideas of the state transformation of society were the formation of political and judicial bodies that would protect the rights of all people. The state retains the right to use force for its own protection from outside intrusion, as well as to monitor compliance with internal laws. The theory of John Locke, presented in this essay, asserts the right for citizens to remove a government that does not fulfill its functions or is abusing power.

  Footprint in pedagogy

  

  “Thoughts on education” is a work by J. Locke, in which he claims that the environment has a decisive influence on the child. At the beginning of his development, the child is under the influence of parents and educators, who are a moral model for him. As they grow older, the child gains freedom. The philosopher also paid attention to the physical education of children. Education, as it was said in the essay, should be based on the use of practical knowledge necessary for life in a bourgeois society, and not on the study of scholastic sciences that have no practical use. This work was criticized by the Bishop of Worcester, with whom Locke repeatedly entered into polemics, defending his views.

  Mark on history

  Philosopher, lawyer, religious figure, educator and publicist - all this is John Locke. The philosophy of his treatises met the practical and theoretical needs of the new century - the century of the Enlightenment, discoveries, new sciences and new state formations.

  Introduction

  1 Life 2 Theory of the state 3 Religion 4 Theory of knowledge 5 Educational and pedagogical ideas 6 Economic doctrines
  6.1 About price theory 6.2 Thinking about money
  7 Political views 8 Works 9 Interesting facts

  Sources

  Introduction

  John Locke (eng. John locke , 1632, Ringtone, Somerset, England - 1704, Essex, England) - English philosopher, one of the main representatives of English empiricism and the Enlightenment. Born in England to a family of a lawyer. He received his primary education at home. Graduated from Westminster Grammar School, Oxford University. He independently learned new philosophy (Bacon, Descartes, etc.), natural science, medicine. He worked as a teacher of Greek language and literature at the university, later was the educator of the son, and then the grandson of the famous politician Count Chefstbury, traveled a lot, lived in France for a long time, where he got acquainted with the ideas of Montaigne. During the rampant absolutist reaction (1683), John Locke emigrated with his patron, the Earl of Shaftesbury, to Holland, and returned to England after the revolution of 1688.

  1. Life

  John Locke was born 1632 in Ringtone, England. 1647 sent to the prestigious Westminster School in London, receiving a scholarship to the politician Alexander Popam, member of the British Parliament. Subsequently he entered the Christ Church aristocratic college in Oxford. Despite being a capable student, he was disgusted with the curriculum and considered the works of contemporary philosophers such as René Descartes more interesting than the material taught at the university. Richard Lover, Locke's comrade from his days at Westminster School, noted that he was familiar with medicine and experimental philosophy, which were persecuted by other universities in Great Britain, including the Royal Society of London, of which John Locke nevertheless became a member.

  John Locke received his master's degree in 1658, and also received his bachelor's degree in medicine in 1674. Meanwhile, in 1658, he became a teacher and professor of Greek rhetoric. He later returned to Oxford and studied medicine. At the time, he collaborated with leading thinkers and scholars such as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis and Robert Hooke. 1666 John Locke meets Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shefstbury, when he arrives in Oxord in search of a cure for a liver infection. Locke made a big impression on Cooper, and he invited him to enter his mail. Thus in 1667 Locke moved into a house in London, which worked as the personal physician of the Earl of Shefstbury. He also went on to study medicine under the eminent medical practitioner Thomas Seidengam. His influence influenced Locke's natural philosophical views, the expression of which was the work Intelligence about the human mind (eng. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding).

  In 1672, the Earl of Shaftesbury became Lord Chancellor of England, after which Locke became involved in politics, which in turn was reflected in his political thinking. However, in 1675 the Earl of Shaftesbury fell into disgrace. Since Locke's career was directly dependent on the ups and downs of Shaftesbury, he traveled extensively in France until 1679. 1683 Locke was forced to flee to the Netherlands.

  In 1 years the denouement came, which put an end to Locke's wanderings. A glorious revolution took place, William III of Orange was proclaimed king of England. Locke participated in the preparation of the coup in 1688, was in close contact with William of Orange and made a significant ideological influence on him. In early 1689 he returned to his homeland. In the 1690s, together with the government service, Locke launched an extensive scientific and literary activity. 1690 published "Intelligence about human understanding", "Two treatises on government", 1693 - "Thoughts on education", 1695 - "Reasonableness of Christianity".

  2. State theory

  He considered the best form to be a constitutional monarchy, which requires the division of the branches of government into parliamentary, executive and federal. His theory of the social contract proceeds from the natural state of humanity, in which, unlike Hobbes, for whom man is a selfish creature, people have the right to life, equality, freedom and private property. Under natural conditions, infringement of someone's rights may result in (exaggerated) revenge, and as a result of revenge for revenge, war may arise. To avoid this, the state is needed as an arbiter. For this, citizens transfer to the state part of their sovereign rights, the owner of which they remain in the future. The state should provide them at a better level than people in their natural state can do. If the rights of people are massively violated, then they have the right to overthrow power. Locke also proved for the first time the human right to the pursuit of happiness, and not just to self-preservation. Limitation of freedom in the form of slavery is possible, for example, in war. Other human rights can be taken into it if the person does not deserve them, for example, through murder. Locke spoke of a liberal state, but not the very ideal of Manchester liberalism. The state has the right to interfere with private property, for example, to impose taxes on dependent labor. He had a strong influence on the declaration of independence, the constitution of the United States and revolutionary France.

  3. Religion

  By religion, Locke sought to create a platform for various Christian denominations with a minimum common base that can be explained with the help of the mind (in the spirit of the Enlightenment). At the same time, he does not deny that there are also places in the Christian religion that at first glance seem illogical, but they simply cannot be substantiated with the help of reason. Atheists and Catholics (the latter, for recognizing the Pope as the head of state) were not fond of the right to freedom of religion. He believed that the state would overstep its powers if it forced people to believe in something by force.

  4. Theory of knowledge

  Locke also wanted to create a common platform for science, without interfering in its individual branches. He partially recognizes Cartesian rationalism: for him, thinking begins from the subject, but denies that reality consists of the separate realities of the subjects. He does not believe in innate knowledge. At the same time, he proceeds from the naive forms of such ideas (not as in Descartes), assuming that innate ideas should be realized by all people at any time. However, neither children nor ignorant people know the basic philosophical concepts. Besides, innate ideas make the mind unnecessary. For example, the idea of \u200b\u200bGod is not innate, since there are many nations where there is no belief in God. He believes that a person is born as "Tabula Rasa" (from Lat. Blank board). There is nothing in the mind that is not perceived by the senses. Locke is an empiricist. The material of knowledge is simple ideas, they all come from experience. An idea is in the most general sense any imagination, an element of consciousness as a conceptual-rational as well as a sensory type.

  Simple ideas:
  sensations (external): sensory impressions of material bodies, color, smell, taste, size, movement, etc. (already here he distinguishes between primary and secondary qualities; see below). reflections (internal): own actions, state, experiences, for example, ideas from reflection, desire, striving, imagination, thinking, etc. consists of two in the same way: joy, pain, strength, consistency in time.
  Complex ideas: components with simple ones through their comparison, combination, abstraction, they are primarily concepts / First qualities (nominalism), since we cannot say anything about the real essence of things.
  Substances: things consisting of a constant connection between simple ideas; cannot know they really are, however, believes that God, the angel are substances.
  Paramount qualities (properties that are directly contained in things, for example, volume, hardness or shape). Minor qualities (properties that are not contained in things, but are added to the idea of \u200b\u200bsubstance through our perception, for example, sweetness, warmth). Only about the substance, the initial qualities, we can say something objectively, since it can be measured quantitatively, not qualitatively.
  Ratio (different ideas to each other; identity and non-identity, time and space), while causality becomes subjective. fashion (ideas that do not reflect reality, but are mental constructions, for example, a state, a triangle, etc.), the concept of morality refers here - for development you need a mind.

  The main property of the mind, he considers the ability to test ideas for quality. However, unlike Kant, for L. there are no ideas a priori, but only the possibility of perception, elaboration of complex ideas and concepts into images. For L., only simple ideas really exist, and complex ones do not. In addition, there is a real substance about which we can say nothing. Thus, he points to the boundaries of knowledge. For Locke, cognition is the perception of the conformity or inconsistency of ideas. Abstraction for L. is the discarding of certain properties in certain things for a better classification.

  He distinguishes three elements of knowledge (confidence in knowledge is high in the first, the lowest in the latter):

  intuitive: A person recognizes by comparison the correspondence or opposition of ideas. Intuitive truth arises when ideas are not subjected to further analysis, the circle is obvious; demonstrative: within the framework of argumentation, each step must be confirmed by intuitive knowledge (cf. in Descartes); sensitive: only external bodily things can be observed, since we lack adequate ideas.

  Because our knowledge is limited, God has given us the ability to provide providence. What God has revealed to us is unconditionally true. There can be no opposites between knowledge and faith, intelligence and providence. What is divine providence is the mind must see.

  5. Educational and pedagogical ideas

  He was one of the founders of the empirical-sensationalist theory of knowledge. Locke believed that humans do not have innate ideas. He is born as a "blank board" and is ready to perceive the world around him with the help of his feelings through internal experience - reflection. "Nine-tenths of people are made what they are only through education." The most important tasks of education: character development, the development of will, moral discipline. The purpose of education is to educate a gentleman who knows how to conduct his affairs intelligently and prudently, a business person, refined in communication. Locke represented the ultimate goal of upbringing in ensuring a healthy mind in a healthy body ("here is a short but complete description of a happy state in this world"). Developed a gentleman education system based on pragmatism and rationalism. The main feature of the utilitarianism system is that each item must prepare for life.

  Education of a gentleman includes (all components of education must be interconnected):

  Physical Education: Promotes a healthy body, courage and perseverance. Health promotion, fresh air, simple food, hardening, strict regimen, exercise, games. Mental education should be subject to the development of character, the formation of an educated business person. Religious education must be directed not at teaching children to rituals, but at the formation of love and respect for God as a supreme being. Moral education is to cultivate the ability to deny yourself pleasures, go against your inclinations and unswervingly follow the advice of reason. Development of graceful manners, skills of gallant behavior. Labor education consists in mastering the craft (carpentry, turning). Labor prevents the possibility of harmful idleness.

  The main didactic principle is to rely on the interest and curiosity of children in teaching. The main educational means are: example and environment. Strong, positive habits are nurtured by gentle words and gentle suggestions. Physical punishment is used only in exceptional cases of audacious and systematic disobedience. The development of will occurs through the ability to endure difficulties, which is facilitated by physical exercise and tempering.

  Learning content: reading, writing, drawing, geography, ethics, history, natural philosophy, chronology, accounting, mother tongue, French, Latin, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, fencing, horse riding, dancing.

  In fact, all this would mean the professionalization of the training of individual students. There should be professionally trained private teachers who would teach individually. The main components of education are physical, moral and intellectual enhancement.

  Physical education - emphasis on conditioning, hygiene, proper nutrition, must wear loose clothing - condemns bodices, children should have plenty of exercise and fresh air Moral education - the importance of discipline, discipline and self-control is an important role model for adults, condemns corporal punishment - only in some cases, in spite of bad manners at work, laziness Intellectual education - higher education is not considered important, one should be able to take care mainly of his own affairs

  Everyone, he said, should learn some of the basics of trading. Locke perceives physical labor as an addition to mental activity. He believed that boys, even from poor families, should attend school where religion, morality, and manual labor would be taught to them. Girls' education was not considered by Locke as possible in principle.

  6. Economic doctrines

  His theory of work is that a person has the right to take something from nature if he mixed it with his labor (the land itself has value, only work on it). A person has no right to take more than she needs. You cannot take that from nature and then let it deteriorate. However, you can change something else, it spoils a little less. However, you can have infinite money, because it does not deteriorate. Promoted free international trade. He also introduced the concept of the velocity of circulation of money.

  6.1. About price theory

  Locke's general theory of value, price, and demand was set forth in a letter to Members of Parliament in 1691 entitled "Some Considerations on the Consequences of Reducing Interest and Increasing the Value of Money." A number of theses followed from work. "The price of any product rises or falls by a certain percentage depending on the number of buyers and sellers." And "that which regulates the price ... [of the Goods] is nothing more than their quantity in proportion to their supply." The quantitative theory of money forms is a special case of this general theory. His idea is based on the thesis that "money is responsible for all things" (Ecclesiastes) or "rent money is always enough, or more than enough", and "changes very little ..." Regardless of the fact that the demand for money is not limited or constant, Locke concludes that the demand for money is regulated by their quantity. He also explores the determinants of supply and demand. For nutrition, goods are generally considered valuable because they can be exchanged, consumed, and must be limited. The goods are in demand because they provide a stream of income. Locke develops the theory of early capitalization, such as land, which matters because "the production of a marketable product generates a certain annual income." The demand for money is almost the same as the demand for goods or land, it depends on whether money is needed as a medium of exchange, or as a credit resource. For a medium of exchange, "money is capable of exchange to purchase the necessary or comforts of life." For credit funds, "it is about owning the same nature with land, by allocating a certain annual income ... or interest."

  6.2. Thinking about money

  Locke identifies two functions of money as a "yardstick" for value, and as a "collateral" to claim goods. He believes that silver and gold, unlike paper money, are the currency for international agreements. Silver and gold, he says, are of equal value to all mankind and therefore can be considered as collateral for any commodity, while the value of paper money is valid only under the government that issues it.

  Locke argues that a country should look for a favorable trade balance in order not to depend on other countries and suffer trade losses. Since the money of the world fund is constantly growing, the country must constantly strive to increase its reserves. Locke develops his theory of foreign exchanges. In addition to the movement of goods, also the movement of the country's money supply, and the movement of capital determines the exchange rate. The latter is less significant and less volatile than commodity movements. As for a country's money supply, if it is large compared to other countries, then this will cause the exchange countries to rise above par, and the export balance will do.

  It also prepares estimates of monetary claims for various economic groups (landowners, workers and brokers). Within each group, monetary claims are closely related to the length of the pay period. He argues brokers - intermediaries - whose activities increase monetary schemes and whose income is in the income of workers and landowners, had a negative impact on the personal and national economy, although they allegedly contributed to the development of the economy.

  7. Political views

  The natural state is a state of complete freedom and equality in the management of one's property and one's life. It is a state of peace and goodwill. The law of nature prescribes peace and security. Natural law is the right to private property, the right to action, to one's own work and its results. Supporter of constitutional monarchy and social contract theory. Locke is a theorist of civil society and the rule of law democratic state (for the accountability of the king and lords of law). The first to suggest the principle of separation of powers: legislative, executive and federal. The federal government deals with the declaration of war and peace, diplomatic matters and participation in alliances and coalitions. The state was created to guarantee natural rights (freedom, equality, property) and laws (peace and security), it must not encroach on these rights, it must be organized so that natural rights are reliably guaranteed. Developed ideas for a democratic revolution. Locke considered it legitimate and necessary for the uprising of the people against the tyrannical government, encroaching on the natural rights and freedom of the people.

  Best known for developing the principles of the democratic revolution. "The right of the people to revolt against tyranny" is Locke most consistently developed in his work? Reflections on the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ".

  8. Works

  The most famous works are "Two Treatises on Government", "Letters on Tolerance", as well as "Intelligence on Human Understanding" (Ukrainian translation by Natalia Bordukov was published by the Kharkov publishing house "Akta").

  Locke became one of the founders of the contractual theory of the origin of the state. Locke was the first to formulate the principle of "separation of powers" into legislative, executive and federal. One of the key characters of the famous television series "Lost" is named after John Locke. The surname Locke as a pseudonym was taken by one of the heroes of the cycle of fantasy novels by Orson Scott Card about Ender Wiggin. In the Russian translation, the English-language name "Locke" is incorrectly rendered as "Loki". The surname Locke is the main character in Michelangelo Antonioni's film "Profession: Reporter" 1975. One of the asteroids, 7010 Locke, is named after John Locke.

  Sources

  Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. Revolutionary Politics & Locke's Two Treatises of Government. Princeton: Princeton University Press. (Discusses the relationship between Locke's philosophy and his political activities). Ayers, Michael R., 1991. Locke. Epistemology & Ontology Routledge (The standard work on Locke "s Essay Concerning Human Understanding). Bailyn, Bernard, 1The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard Uni. Press. (Discusses the influence of Locke and other thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought). GA Cohen, 1995. "Marx and Locke on Land and Labor," in his Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality, Oxford University Press. Cox, Richard, Locke on War and Peace, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960. (A discussion of Locke's theory of international relations). Chappell, Vere, ed., 19nn. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge Uni. Press. Dunn, John, 1984. Locke. Oxford Uni. Press. (A succinct introduction.), 1969. The Political Thought of John Locke: An Historical Account of the Argument of the "Two Treatises of Government." Cambridge Uni. Press. (Introduced the interpretation which emphasizes the theological element in Locke's political thought). Macpherson. CB The Political Theory of Possessive Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). (Establishes the deep affinity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism). Pangle, Thomas, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders and the Philosophy of Locke (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988; paperback ed., 1990), 334 pages. (Challenges Dunn "s, Tully" s, Yolton "s, and other conventional readings.) Strauss, Leo, Natural Right and History, chap. 5B (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). (Argues from a non-Marxist point of view for a deep affinity between Hobbes and Locke). Strauss, Leo, "Locke" s Doctrine of Natural law, "American Political Science Review01. (A critique of W. von Leyden" s edition of Locke "s unpublished writings on natural law). Tully, James, 1980. "A Discourse on Property: John Locke and his Adversaries" Cambridge Uni. Press Waldron, Jeremy, 2002. God, Locke and Equality. Cambridge Uni. Press. Yolton, JW, ed. 1969. John Locke: Problems and Perspectives. Cambridge Uni. Press. Zuckert, Michael, Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. Locke Studies, appearing annually, publishes scholarly work on John Locke.