The history of the development of pathopsychology. Topic of lecture subject and history of development of pathopsychology lecturer

The construction of experimental techniques should provide an opportunity to take into account the patient's search for a solution. The construction of a psychological experiment should enable the experimenter to "intervene" in the experimental strategy in order to discover how the patient perceives the experimenter's "help".

One and the same pathopsychological symptom can be caused by different mechanisms; it can be an indicator of different conditions. Therefore, the nature of the violations should be assessed in combination with the data of a holistic pathopsychological study, i.e. syndromic analysis is required.

The experimental data must be reliable.

The results of the experiment should give not so much a quantitative as a qualitative description of the disintegration of the psyche.

Principles of pathopsychological research.

1. Systemic and qualitative analysis of the investigated mental disorders. This principle is due to the theoretical provisions of general psychology. Mental processes are formed in vivo according to the mechanism of assigning a common human experience, therefore, a pathopsychological experiment is aimed not at studying and measuring individual processes, but at studying a person performing real activities. It is aimed at a qualitative analysis of various forms of mental disintegration, at revealing the mechanisms of disturbed activity and at the possibility of its restoration.

2. Proceeding from the fact that every mental process has a certain dynamics and direction, it is necessary to construct experimental research in this way, so that they reflect the safety or violation of these parameters.

6. Psychological research in the clinic can be equated to a "functional test".In the situation of a pathopsychological experiment, the role of a functional test can be played by those tasks that are able to actualize the mental operations that a person uses in his life, his motives that induce this activity.

7. Pathopsychological experiment should actualize not only the mental operations of the patient, but also his personal attitude. A mental and psychopathological phenomenon can be understood on the basis of taking into account a person's attitude to work, his motives and goals, and his attitude to himself.

8. A pathopsychological experiment is essentially a mutual activity, mutual communication between the experimenter and the subject. Therefore, its construction cannot be tough... Its structure should make it possible to detect not only the structure of the changed, but also the remaining intact forms of the patient's mental activity.

Thus, experimental psychological research should answer the questions of how the course of mental processes is disturbed. In the study of specific anomalies of personality development and underdevelopment of the psyche, the main tasks of psychological research are associated with identifying those main components of mental activity, the underdevelopment or anomaly of which determines the formation of the pathological structure of the psyche.

The activities of pathopsychologists are fully applicable deontological requirements, usually presented to psychiatrists.

Ø One of them - extremely important, is to preserve professional secrets. The pathopsychologist reports his results and diagnostic considerations only to the psychiatrist who sent the patient for research. The pathopsychologist cannot share his assumptions regarding the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis with the patient's relatives.

Ø The pathopsychologist should not forget and about responsibility , which the profession imposes on him, since an incorrect conclusion can contribute to harm to the patient, both in the case of incorrectly prescribed treatment, and in cases of taking inadequate measures of a social and legal order.

Ø Pathopsychological research should not be iatrogenic ... After the study, the patient should not have thoughts about his mental incapacity in connection with the behavior of the investigator. On the contrary, a pathopsychologist should always maintain maximum psychotherapy in a conversation with a patient, promote the patient's optimistic tendencies and attitudes in predicting the course of the disease and treatment results.

It is clear that as in any activity where two are involved, the relationship between them is important for the results of their joint activities. But in a pathopsychological experiment, this is especially important. Here, the quality of the result largely depends on the quality of the relationship between the patient and the psychologist. If the patient does not want to work with this specialist, then the specialist will not receive the information he needs. It should be remembered that the examination situation itself is stressful for the patient. Perhaps he is in the hospital for the first time, he is confused, depressed, or - angry, believes that everything that happened is violence, absurdity. The psychologist for such a patient is a part of the evil, haunting world, an enemy. And your task is to become the person whom he trusts, from whom he will expect help.

Patients are very different, and it is desirable to find an approach to all.

Which patient we have to work with is beyond our control. But it's well known what qualities a psychologist should have .

Ø It is desirable that he be self-possessed, tolerant of the opinions of others, benevolent towards patients, tactful, as well as cultured, widely erudite.

Ø His decisions should be balanced, he should not, while forming a hypothesis, get carried away with it and fit the results obtained under it.

Ø His questions about the motives of this or that answer should be tactful so as not to strain and not frighten the patient.

Ø He should not provoke the patient's protest reactions with his pressure or arrogant appearance.

Ø It is especially important to be able to maintain equanimity, even with clearly provocative behavior of the patient. Manifestation of his irritation never succeeds in changing the patient's negative attitude; rather, it will only increase the unwillingness to cooperate.

Ø Also, after hearing the patient's pretentious and ridiculous answer, you should not make an expressive face and report your amazement.

Ø The task of the pathopsychologist is to promote the fullest possible manifestation of the patient in the experimental situation. It is important that the psychologist's own emotional reactions do not interfere with the experiment, and do not affect the perception and assessment of the data obtained.

Review and self-test questions:

1. The place of pathopsychology in psychology and medicine, interdisciplinary relationships of pathopsychology.

2. Differences between pathopsychology and psychopathology.

3. Applied value and practical tasks of pathopsychology.

4. List and reveal the types of pathopsychological examination.

5. Expand concepts: Simulation, dissimulation, aggravation

6. Principles of construction of pathopsychological research and its place in a psychiatric clinic.

7. Stages of clinical and psychological research and their characteristics.

8. Expand the essence of stage 1 of clinical and psychological research

9. Expand the essence of the 2nd stage of clinical and psychological research

10. Expand the essence of the 3 stages of clinical and psychological research

11. How do you understand one of the principles of pathopsychological research: "the need for syndromic analysis"?

12. Conversation of the pathopsychologist with the patient, and observation of his behavior during the study.

13. The structure and style of pathopsychological conclusion, reflection of the results of clinical psychological and experimental psychological research.

14. Ethical principles and deontological aspects of the work of a pathopsychologist.

15. What is iatrogeny?

MATERIALS FOR STUDYING THEME:

1. Bleikher V.M. Pathopsychological diagnostics. http://www.koob.ru/

2. Bleikher V.M., Kruk I.V., Bokov S.N. Clinical Pathopsychology: A Guide for Physicians and Clinical Psychologists. Moscow-Voronezh, 2002.

3. Wasserman L.I., Schelkova O.Yu. Medical psychodiagnostics. Theory, practice, training. M.-SPb., 2003.

4. Zeigarnik B.V. Pathopsychology. http://www.koob.ru/

5. Zeigarnik B.V., Nikolaeva V.V., Lebedinsky V.V. (ed.) Workshop on pathopsychology: Textbook. M., 1987.

6. Kabanov M.M., Lichko A.E. (ed.) Methods of psychological diagnosis and correction in the clinic. L., 1983.

7. Myagkov I.F., Bokov S.N. Medical psychology: the basics of pathopsychology and psychopathology. http://www.koob.ru/

8. Pathopsychology: textbook / EA Orlova, RV Koz'yakov, NS Koz'yakova. - M.: Yurayt Publishing House, 2011 .-- 235 p.

9. Rubinstein S.Ya. Experimental methods of pathopsychology and experience of their application in the clinic (Practical guide) - Moscow: April-press, Psychotherapy, 2007. - 224 p.

10. Seredina N.V., Shkurenko D.A. Fundamentals of Medical Psychology: General, Clinical Pathopsychology. Rostov-on-Don, 2003.

11. Sobchik L.N. Workshop on psychodiagnostics. SPb., 2003.

12. Ethical code of the Russian psychological society // Russian psychological journal. 2004. Vol.1. # 1. S.37-54.

A brief history of the development of Russian pathopsychology in the context of the characteristics of the main stages of the formation of pathopsychological science in Europe and in Russia in the 19th century.

Wundt and the first laboratory of pathopsychology in Leipzig, the main directions of the laboratory's work as priority aspects of the development of pathopsychology in Europe in the 60-80s. XIX century.

Description of the main theoretical problems developed in the first pathopsychological laboratories in Russia in the 19th century (laboratories of V.M. Bekhterev (Kazan, 1885), S.S. Korsakov (Moscow, 1886), I.A. Sikorsky (Kiev , 1889)), mistakes, achievements, contribution to the expansion of the diagnostic experimental base of pathopsychology (Zeigarnik B.F.).

The Russian school of A.F. Lazursky, a brief description of the scientific problems, developed within the framework of the scientific school. Vygotsky's contribution to the development of domestic pathopsychology in the Soviet period: fundamental provisions on the relationship between motivational and cognitive personality structures, the relationship between intellect and affect.

The value of the theory of relations by V.N. Myasishchev and the theory of attitudes by D.N. Uznadze for the development of ideas about the violation of the cognitive activity of the individual.

Basic concepts:motivational and cognitive structures of personality, VN Myasishchev's theory of relationships, attitude, experimental pathopsychological laboratories, psycho-reflex therapy, natural experiment, psychological school.

THEME 2 "SOME HISTORICAL ASPECTS OF PATHOPSYCHOLOGY DEVELOPMENT"

Lecture summary:

Until the end of the 60-80s. In the 19th century, pathopsychology was in little demand for the needs of a psychiatric clinic. Psychological knowledge at that time was of a speculative, introspective nature. The experimental-psychological principle of obtaining scientific data was firmly established in pathopsychology only in 1879, when the world's first experimental psychological laboratory was opened in Leipzin by W. Wundt. However, the development of domestic pathopsychology differed from the principles of the formation of scientific knowledge in Europe (,).

The first stage in the development of scientific knowledge in Russia: at the same time, several laboratories of experimental psychological research were created - the laboratory of V.M. Bekhterev in Kazan in 1885, S.S. Korsakov in Moscow in 1886, V.F. Chizh in Yuriev, I.A. Sikorsky in Kiev, P. Kovalevsky in Kharkov (,).

The main practical and theoretical problems that were solved in the first laboratories:

An attempt to develop pathopsychological scientific knowledge on the basis of a descriptive clinic turned out to be an erroneous scientific direction in the future. Therefore, due to the lack of experimental and diagnostic material at the first stage, there was an initial unity of the concepts of psychopathology and pathopsychology, which led to insufficient differentiation of the methods and subject of research of psychiatry and pathopsychology. Pathopsychology was initially set on the path of a clinical descriptive procedure. (P.M. Zinoviev: " ... a scientific discipline that studies the mental life of patients is called psychopathology or pathological psychology ”).

The clearest understanding of the subject and object of research was first presented by V.M. Bekhterev, who brought pathopsychology beyond the limits of science applied to psychiatry on the basis of dividing the concepts of anomalies of mental processes and the general clinical picture of mental illness. VM Bekhterev is the founder of natural scientific experimental psychological knowledge in Russia. He believed that the laws of functioning of the normal and abnormal psyche are the same, therefore, not psychiatry, but psychology should be engaged in the diagnosis of anomalies of mental development.

A substantially new understanding of pathopsychology was introduced by A.F. Lazursky. He considered a pathopsychological experiment as an opportunity to track the dynamics of the clinical manifestations of the patient's personality, i.e. as a current clinical assessment of the dynamics of disease treatment ().

The second stage of the development of scientific knowledge: the development of pathopsychology is associated with the works of IM Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" (1863), which combined physiology and psychology. The successor of I.M.Sechenov was V.M.Bekhterev, who did a lot to strengthen the experimental base of pathopsychology and created his own experimental psychological school.

The main practical and theoretical problems that

were solved in the laboratory of V.M. Bekhterev:

There was a tendency of a decisive departure from functionalism, the tendency to experimentally investigate various types of anomalous mental activity prevailed. However, in the process of developing the methodology of a scientific pathopsychological experiment, great importance was paid directly to the technique of the experiment, which did not allow to fully see the subject of activity in the patient. The undeniable merit of the school's perennial scientific development is the creation of methods for the experimental psychological study of the personality of the mentally ill: the methodology for comparing concepts and defining concepts were among the most used in Soviet psychology ().

V.M. Bekhterev formulated the requirements for the structure and content of diagnostic techniques in pathopsychology, formulated the principles of conducting pathopsychological research: using only a set of techniques - parallel diagnostics, qualitative and comprehensive analysis of mental disorders, a personal approach, correlating research results with data from healthy individuals of the corresponding sex, age and education.

The third stage in the development of Russian pathopsychology: associated with the creation in Russia of the school of A.F. Lazursky, whose students made a great scientific contribution to the development of such a branch of psychological knowledge as educational psychology.

The main practical and theoretical problems that were solved in the laboratory of A.F. Lazursky:the research results enriched the experimental pathopsychology, expanded the scope of the pathopsychological experiment to the need to take into account the individual factor: emotions, moods, the patient's somatic sphere (for example, poor results of long-term or operational memorization may be a consequence of a patient's phonemic hearing impairment or a violation of semantic understanding of speech (Wernicke's sensory aphasia)) ;

A natural experiment was introduced into the research clinic as a kind of diagnostic organization of patients' leisure in the clinic, which makes it possible to obtain additional experimental material for making a diagnosis. The research of the school of A.F. Lazursky laid the foundation for the development of the foundations of psycho-reflex therapy ().

The fourth stage in the development of Russian pathopsychology: connected with the influence of Vygotsky's creative ideas on the development of science:

The human brain has different principles of organization than the brain of an animal;

The development of higher mental functions is not fully determined by mental morphology, they arise not as a result of the maturation of brain structures alone, but are formed in vivo by individual subjective assimilation of the experience of mankind by a person in the process of communication;

The defeat of the same zones of KGM has a different meaning at different stages of mental development.

LS Vygotsky himself is in charge of the pathopsychological laboratory at the Moscow branch of VIEM on the basis of the N. S. S. Korsakov. The material obtained in the study of the psychology of a mentally retarded schoolchild formed the basis of the theory of the connection between motivational and cognitive spheres in a fundamental discussion with K. Levin about the connection between intellect and affect. Under the guidance of Vygotsky's students B.V. Zeigarnik and G.V. Birenbaum, the theory of the disintegration of the psyche in the case of a pathological process in the brain was developed.

1. Atlas for experimental research of deviations in human mental activity // Ed. I.A. Polishchuk, A.E. Vidrenko. - Kiev .: Zdorov'ya, 1979. - 124 p.

2. Bekhterev V.M. Personality and conditions for its development and health. - SPb, 1905 .-- 43 p.

3. Bekhterev V.M. Selected works. - M .: Medgiz, 1954 .-- 528 p.

4. Vygotsky L.S. Development of higher mental functions. - M .: APN USSR, 1960, 499 p.

5. Gannushkin P.B. Selected Works. - M .: Medicine, 1964 .-- 292 p.

6. Lazursky A.F. An outline of the science of characters. - SPb, 1909 .-- 354 p.

7. Sechenov I.M. Reflexes of the brain. - M .: Ed. Academy of Medical Sciences of the USSR, 1961 .-- 100 p.

8. B.V. Zeigarnik. Pathopsychology. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow. University, 1986 .-- 287 p.

9. Ivanov-Smolensky A.G. The main problems of the pathophysiology of higher nervous activity. –M .; L., 1933 .-- 573 p.

Chapter I

TO THE HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT
DOMESTIC PATHOPSYCHOLOGY
(The chapter was written jointly with V.I.Belozertseva)

Domestic pathopsychology has a different history of development than modern clinical psychology in the West. However, they were born simultaneously, at the beginning of the 20th century, and were brought to life by the demands of psychiatric practice and the achievements of psychological science.

Until the end of the XIX century. most psychiatrists in the world did not use the data of psychology: the futility of its speculative introspective provisions for the needs of the clinic was obvious. In psychiatric journals 60s-80s. of the last century, many works were published on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system, and there were virtually no psychological articles.

Interest in psychology on the part of leading psychoneurologists arose in connection with a radical turn in its development - the organization in 1879 by W. Wundt in Leipzig of the world's first experimental psychological laboratory. The introduction of the methods of natural science into psychology tore it out of the bosom of idealistic philosophy. Psychology became an independent science. And the further development of psychiatry was unthinkable outside the union with experimental psychology. "It is no longer possible for a psychiatrist to neglect the provisions of modern psychology, which is based on experiment, and not on speculation," wrote VM Bekhterev [27, 595]. "Let us leave the work of artists to reproduce the inner world of the mentally ill, to recreate their emotional experiences, which some of them (Dostoevsky, Garshin, etc.) achieve much better than doctors ..." [31, 11].

At large psychiatric clinics at the end of the 19th century. psychological laboratories began to be organized - E. Kraepelin in Germany (1879), P. Janet in France (1890). Experimental psychological laboratories were also opened at psychiatric clinics in Russia - the second in Europe laboratory of V.M.Bekhterev in Kazan (1885), then in St. Petersburg, the laboratory of S.S.Korsakov in Moscow (1886), V.F. Chizh in Yuryev , I. A. Sikorsky in Kiev, P. I. Kovalevsky in Kharkov. A number of laboratories have been established in the USA and England.

Experimental psychological methods for studying disturbed psyche were developed in the laboratories. At the same time, to compare the results, the psyche of healthy people was studied. Since in Russia the official psychological science stubbornly adhered to the introspective method, remaining in the mainstream of philosophical knowledge, psychiatrists were the first experimental psychologists. In oral speeches and on the pages of the press, they substantiated the need to turn psychology into an experimental science, proved the inconsistency of speculative speculative constructions: “Science must be accurate and cannot be content with analogy, assumptions ... and even more so it cannot put up with the products of fantasy and creativity on the spot reality "[26,398].

At the beginning of the XX century. researchers of mental disorders announce the isolation of a special branch of knowledge - pathological psychology... In the literature of those years, there is still an undifferentiated use of the terms "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". Thus, A. Gregor (1910) writes: "Experimental psychopathology studies the performance of mental functions under abnormal conditions created by a painful process underlying mental illness" [211, 3]. "Special conditions of research, and even more special formulation of questions given by the needs of a psychiatric clinic, led to the formation of an independent discipline - experimental psychopathologycontacting, but not merging with ... clinical psychiatry, general and individual psychology, "wrote P. M. Zinoviev [70, 6]," the scientific discipline that studies the mental life of mentally ill people is called psychopathology or pathological psychology ... "[140, 75].

The confusion of the concepts of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology" occurred due to the lack of a clear differentiation of the tasks of psychology and psychiatry during the period of initial accumulation of factual material in specific studies of mental anomalies, especially since researchers, as a rule, combined both a psychiatrist and a psychologist in one person.

The clearest idea of \u200b\u200bthe subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the dawn of its formation was contained in the works of V.M.Bekhterev: "The latest advances in psychiatry, owing largely to the clinical study of mental disorders at the patient's bedside, served as the basis for a special department of knowledge known as pathological psychology (italics mine. - B. 3.), which has already led to the solution of many psychological problems and from which, no doubt, even more in this respect can be expected in the future "[23, 12-13]. "objective psychology", the scientist defined its subject: "... the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks of the psychology of normal persons" [26, 8] - Deviations and modifications of normal manifestations of mental activity, according to V. M. Bekhterev, are subject to the same basic laws as a healthy psyche.Thus, VM Bekhterev no longer equated the concepts of “pathopsychology” and “psychopathology.” In the Psychoneurological Institute he organized, courses of general psychopathology and pathological psychology were taught at the same time, i.e. they were different disciplines.

At the very origins of the emerging branch of psychology, many domestic and foreign scientists noted that its significance goes beyond the limits of science applied to psychiatry.

Mental disorders were viewed as an experiment of nature, affecting mostly complex mental phenomena, to which experimental psychology had no approach. Thus, psychology received a new tool of knowledge. “Disease turns into a subtle instrument of analysis,” wrote T. Ribot. “It makes experiments for us that are unrealizable in any other way” [156, 61].

In one of the first generalizing works on pathopsychology, "Psychopathology as Applied to Psychology," the Swiss psychiatrist G. Störring held the idea that a change in a particular element of mental life as a result of illness makes it possible to judge its significance and place in the composition of complex mental phenomena. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in psychology, in addition, pathopsychological phenomena can serve as a criterion for evaluating psychological theories.

In the preface to the Russian translation of the work of G. Storring, V. M. Bekhterev noted: "Due to a more convex picture of pathological manifestations of mental activity, the relationships between individual elements of complex mental processes often appear much brighter and more prominent than in a normal state. For example, in pathological cases it is better the constituent elements of personality consciousness are clarified, the meaning in mental life of mood and the sensitive sphere in general appears more clearly, the factors determining the processes of memory, associations and judgments, etc., are more fully clarified. In view of this, it is natural that modern psychologists more and more often turn to psychopathology for clarification of many controversial issues "[195, 1].

AF Lazursky expressed similar thoughts: "The data obtained by the pathology of the soul made it necessary to revise, and in many cases to undergo a thorough revision, many important departments of normal psychology." There appeared "an opportunity to examine the mental properties of a person as if through a magnifying glass, making it clear for us such details, the existence of which in normal subjects can only be guessed at" [108, 664, 665].

Thus, studies of mental disorders in their very origins were considered by domestic and foreign scientists in the mainstream of psychological knowledge. At the same time, the great importance of experimental psychological research for solving the problems of psychiatry was recognized. Thus, in connection with the studies of mental disorders by E. Kraepelin and his collaborators, V. Henri pointed out that experimental psychology provides methods that allow one to notice insignificant changes in the state of the patient's mental functions, "follow the course of the disease step by step," observing positive or negative the impact of treatments. Physicians usually see only large changes that do not give the opportunity to finely regulate the treatment process [216,41].

We will not discuss the ways of development of pathopsychology abroad. Let us note only the significant contribution to its formation of the studies of the school of E. Kraepelin and the appearance in the 20s. of our century of works on medical psychology by well-known foreign psychiatrists: "Medical Psychology" by E. Kretschmer, which treats the problems of development and mental disorders from the unacceptable for us positions of constitutionalism, and "Medical Psychology" by P. Janet, devoted mainly to issues of psychotherapy. *

* The history of the formation and development of foreign and domestic pathopsychology has not been sufficiently studied and presented in our literature.

If progressive psychiatrists stood at the origins of foreign pathopsychology, then later this branch developed and develops under the influence of ideas from various areas of bourgeois psychology - behaviorism, psychoanalysis, humanistic and existential psychology. Of course, one cannot deny the positive significance, for example, for the practice of psychotherapy, the ideas of K. Rogers, G. Allport, A. Maslow. However, the theoretical provisions of these directions are methodologically untenable; in the practice of foreign pathopsychology, the main emphasis is not on experiment, but on the measurement and correlation of individual characteristics, personality traits; the practical psychological service is influenced by the ideas of the so-called "antipsychiatry" and "community psychology".

Developed domestic pathopsychology from the very beginning was distinguished by strong natural science traditions. The formation of its principles and research methods was influenced by the work of IM Sechenov "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), which made a "gap in the wall" dividing physiology and psychology. I.M.Sechenov himself attached great importance to the convergence of psychology and psychiatry. In a letter to MA Bokova, the father of Russian physiology announced his intention to engage in psychological experiments and develop medical psychology, which he lovingly called his "swan song" [171, 239]. But circumstances did not allow him to carry out his intentions.

The successor of I.M.Sechenov on this path was V.M.Bekhterev, a psychiatrist by training, the founder of materialistically oriented experimental psychology and the founder of the pathopsychological trend in Russia. As a representative of the reflex concept, he considered the only scientific objective method for the study of mental activity, which requires, if possible, to cover the entire set of facts of the external manifestation of neuropsychics and related conditions ... "[28, 592].

To dissociate himself from introspectionism, V.M. Bekhterev refused to use psychological terminology. The conceptual apparatus of the theory he developed creates the impression that the school of V.M.Bekhterev was concerned exclusively with physiology. * However, the design of the research was aimed mainly at analyzing the performance of experimental tasks, and not at the features of neurodynamics. "Objective psychology" V. M. Bekhterev broke with traditional functionalism and proposed to experimentally investigate various types of activity: how the patient is identified with impressions, the definition of inconsistencies in pictures and stories, the combination of verbal symbols and external impressions, replenishment of syllables and words when they are omitted in the text , determination of similarities and differences between objects, the formation of a conclusion from two premises, etc.

* "Impression" (perception), "consolidation", or "fixation of traces" (memorization), "revival of traces" (recollection), "identification of traces" (recognition), "concentration" (attention), "combination of traces" (associations) , "general tone", or "mood" (feelings), etc. [26, 589 ].

But in the course of the struggle with subjective-idealistic psychology, V. M. Bekhterev, who had not mastered dialectical materialism, came to the creation of "reflexology", in which he mechanically split real activity: he absolutized its external manifestations and ignored the mental image. From the activity, its motivational component was emasculated, which made it possible to see a subject of activity in a person.

It should be noted that, despite this, in the specific works of the Bekhterev school, the theoretical departure from psychological terminology and the corresponding analysis was not always carried out. As for pathopsychological studies, most of them were carried out in the pre-reflexological period of V. M. Bekhterev's work, when such a task was not at all posed.

The range of pathopsychological studies can be judged by the doctoral dissertations carried out under the guidance of V. M. Bekhterev: L. S. Pavlovskaya. Experimental psychological studies on patients "with increasing paralytic dementia (1907); MI Astvatsaturov. Clinical and experimental psychological studies of speech function (1908); KN Zavadovsky. The nature of associations in patients with chronic primary insanity (1909) ; A. V. Ilyin. On the processes of concentration (attention) in mentally ill mentally ill (1909); L. G. Gutman. Experimental psychological research in manic-melancholic psychosis (1909); V. V. Abramov. Objective psychological study of creativity and other intellectual functions in the mentally ill (1911), etc.

Representatives of the school of V.M.Bekhterev have developed many methods of experimental psychological research of the mentally ill. Some of them (the method of comparing concepts, defining concepts) are among the most used in Soviet psychology.

The requirements for the techniques formulated by V.M.Bekhterev and S.D. Vladychko have retained their significance for modern science: simplicity (for solving experimental problems, the subjects should not have special knowledge and skills) and portability (the possibility of research directly at the patient's bedside, outside the laboratory environment ).

The works of the Bekhterev school reflect rich concrete material on disorders of perception and memory, mental activity, imagination, attention and mental performance. The experimental results were compared with the characteristics of the patient's behavior outside the experimental situation. The case histories, written from the standpoint of objective psychology, contain information, valuable for psychological analysis, on disorders of personality, consciousness and self-awareness, and the emotional-volitional sphere. They are presented in dynamics, which allows you to see the conditions and stages of development of a mental defect, which are manifested in the real life of a person.

Some pathopsychological studies of the school are of interest as a historical fact of the "activity" approach to mental phenomena. Thus, in the multifaceted studies of V. M. Bekhterev's collaborators, associations are not a mechanical cohesion of ideas, but the result of an activity, dependent on its structure and dynamics. Or, for example, speech is analyzed in a system of holistic behavior; its features in the experimental conversation are compared with the patient's speech in other circumstances; it is shown that similar speech reactions can have a different nature, the absence or perversion of the speech reaction is possible not only because of mental deficiency, but also as an expression of negativism, "involuntary but conscious desire of patients to evade external influence on their will" [16, 290 ]. All this objective material can be analyzed in line with the modern theory of activity.

The main principles of pathopsychological research in the school of V.M.Bekhterev were: the use of a set of methods, a qualitative analysis of mental disorders, a personal approach, correlation of the research results with the data of healthy persons of the corresponding age, gender, education.

The use of a set of techniques - observing the subject during the experiment, taking into account the peculiarities of his behavior outside the experimental situation, combining various experimental techniques for studying the same pathological phenomena - contributed to obtaining rich objective material.

The principle of qualitative analysis, put forward in the period of the enthusiasm of many researchers by measuring methods (the approach to mental disorders as a quantitative decrease in certain abilities), has become traditional in Russian pathopsychology. But the theoretical platform of the scientist, especially during the development of reflexology, limited the analysis to the flow of external features of activity. And the recorded objective material was not brought to a truly psychological analysis.

The valuable and fruitful principle of the personal approach was also put forward by VM Bekhterev during the period of functionalism dominance in the world of experimental psychology: “The personality of the patient and its attitude to the experiment is not left unattended by the experimenter. ... Everything that can give an objective observation of the patient , starting with facial expressions and ending with statements and behavior of the patient, must be taken into account ... evaluated in connection with all conditions of the experiment, not excluding those immediately preceding the experiment "[28, 593]. But VM Bekhterev's "objective method" contradicted the possibilities of this principle, and the analysis remained incomplete.

KI Povarnin, a representative of the school of V. M. Bekhterev, wrote that the results of objective research reflect the patient's attitude to the experimental problem: “If a normal subject goes to meet the experimenter in his aspirations, then the mentally ill can treat the experience completely differently: he can be careless to the work offered to him, performs it somehow due to complete indifference to the interests of experience or latent unwillingness, or distracting delusions and hallucinations; he, finally, can completely abandon experience due to suspicion, etc. " [148, 33]. In this regard, the question was raised about the skillful individual approach of the experimenter to the patient, one that would encourage participation in the experiment.

The views of K. I. Povarnin and other representatives of the school of V. M. Bekhterev were greatly influenced by the head of the psychological laboratory of the Psychoneurological Institute A. F. Lazursky. As a student and collaborator of V.M.Bekhterev, he became the organizer of his own psychological school. In the preface to AF Lazursky's book "General and Experimental Psychology", LS Vygotsky wrote that its author was one of those researchers who were on the path of transforming empirical psychology into scientific. A. F. Lazursky himself worked out mainly questions of individual and educational psychology, but ideas from these branches were also transferred to pathopsychology. So, K.I. Povarnin pointed out the need to take into account the individual characteristics of patients, since sometimes defects are found where, in fact, individual characteristics are sharply expressed. For example, poor memorization is possible not due to illness, but as a result of poor auditory memory, as can be seen by memorizing visually perceived. This idea enriched the principle of correlating the results of the study of sick and healthy.

A natural experiment developed by A.F. Lazursky for the needs of educational psychology was introduced into the clinic. It was used in the course of organizing the leisure time of patients, their activities and entertainment - with a special purpose, calculating problems, rebuses, riddles, tasks to fill in letters, syllables, etc., missing in the text, were offered.

Thus, pathopsychology, already at its origins, had all the signs necessary to establish its scientific independence as a branch of psychological science: the subject of research is mental disorders; methods - the entire arsenal of psychological methods; the conceptual apparatus is the apparatus of psychological science. Another thing is what content was put into the concept of the psyche by representatives of various psychological trends. In the school of V.M.Bekhterev, broad development prospects were outlined, theoretical and applied aspects of the emerging industry were identified.

Communication with psychiatry was carried out through participation in the recreation of the psychopathological syndrome characteristic of various mental illnesses. Experimental studies were used in solving problems of differential diagnosis and in monitoring the dynamics of mental disorders during treatment. They helped to penetrate the mechanisms of mental illness. So, VM Bekhterev experimentally proved that in the appearance and localization of hallucinations in patients, their orienting activity plays a role - anxious listening, scrutiny; demonstrated the relationship of hallucinations with illusions.

At the school of V. M. Bekhterev, the development of the foundations of psycho-reflex therapy began. "By analogy with the physical method of strengthening a sick organism," wrote A. V. Ilyin, "psychological experience will make it possible to find a way, if not even for relative recovery, then at least for maintaining the patient's dying psyche" [76, 480] ... As a method of treatment of hysterical anesthesia and paralysis, obsessive states and pathological drives, the "education" of combination-motor reflexes, which supplanted pathological reflexes, was used; work was carried out on raising mental activity through a certain dosage of mental labor in the form of reading and taking notes and other forms of mental activities of adults. This kind of therapy merged with curative pedagogy, but psychological methods proper played a very modest role in it. The specific participation of psychologists in the construction of general principles and the creation of specific methodological methods of psychotherapeutic influence begins to take shape in Soviet pathopsychology only in our time.

Pathopsychological methods were used in pediatric and forensic examinations. VM Bekhterev and NM Shchelovanov wrote that the data of pathological psychology make it possible to almost accurately recognize mentally incompetent schoolchildren in order to single them out in special institutions for the retarded.

The practice of forensic medical examination gave rise to the need for research at the intersection of pathological and individual psychology, which had not only practical, but also theoretical value. Research at the intersection of pathopsychology with social psychology was also planned. "The influence of patients on each other and the wide area of \u200b\u200bnormal suggestibility and imitation among healthy people are extremely interesting questions for both the psychiatrist and the psychologist; this issue deserves full attention of experimental psychology, collective psychology, sociology, pedagogy and criminal anthropology" [7, 758 ]. He has a practical interest in setting up cases in schools, hospitals, in the fight against neuroses and psychosis.

It is interesting that in the school of V. M. Bekhterev the problem of the relationship between the development and disintegration of the psyche was outlined, which found a solution much later, on the theoretical basis of the works of L. S. Vygotsky (B. V. Zeigarnik. B. S. Bratus, M. A. Kareva, S. Ya. Rubinstein, V.V. Lebedinsky). So, M. Marzhetskiy wrote about the tempting of comparing the data obtained "by observation and experiments on children, with the data obtained in the work on the mentally ill" [129, 733]. Such work was carried out by L. S. Pavlovskaya, showing the heterogeneity of the "disintegration" in two groups of patients - idiots and with juvenile dementia - and the qualitative difference in their solutions to experimental problems in comparison with the solution of problems beyond their powers by children of the fourth year of life ".

VM Bekhterev did not consider the study of the psyche of the mentally ill as the key to understanding the inner world of the healthy. From the norm - to pathology, in order to restore the patient's neuropsychic health - this should be the way of the psychiatrist's thoughts. Therefore, both in the practice of training a neuropathologist and psychiatrist, and in scientific psychiatric searches of the school of V.M.Bekhterev, the psychology of a normal person occupied an honorable place.

KI Povarnin expressed valuable thoughts about the importance of general psychological training: “Researchers-doctors often consider it possible to begin experimental psychological research of the mentally ill, without bothering to get familiar even with the basics of normal psychology. ... With such an attitude to psychological research, it is difficult to expect from them with satisfactory results ... After all, the mental life of a person is the most complex object of study in all nature and requires a skillful and careful approach armed with psychological knowledge "[148, 38-39].

Insufficient psychological preparation can lead to gross mistakes - a simplified understanding of mental phenomena, incorrect conclusions. A complex psychological reality, in which all the components are fused together, the experimenter must skillfully reorganize, bringing to the fore the phenomenon under study. Knowledge of psychology is necessary both when choosing a method of research and when analyzing the results.

In addition to theoretical knowledge, researchers need practical training: "Skill in work, the ability to approach the subject, the systematic conduct of the experiment, an infinite number of trifles that are overlooked in theoretical presentation, but extremely important for the case, can be learned only in practice" [148, 42]. It is necessary to be able to keep a protocol, register results, distribute the sequence in time and duration of experiments, etc. KI Povarnin noted that "science cannot get rid of works that discredit the experimental psychological method" until insufficiently trained experimenters are engaged in research.

Versatile specific research and the development of elementary theoretical foundations allow us to consider the contribution of the school of V.M.Bekhterev to pathopsychology as the starting point for the formation of this industry in Russia. That is why VM Bekhterev and his collaborators are given so much attention in this book.

The second major center of domestic psychiatry, in which experimental psychology developed, was the psychiatric clinic of S. S. Korsakov, organized in 1887 at the medical faculty of Moscow University. The psychological laboratory of the clinic was headed by A.A. Tokarsky. He edited the "Notes of the Psychological Laboratory", a significant content of which was the research of students.

Like all representatives of progressive trends in psychiatry, S. S. Korsakov was of the opinion that only knowledge of the foundations of psychological science makes it possible to correctly understand the disintegration of the mental activity of a mentally ill person. It is no coincidence that he began reading a course in psychiatry with a presentation of the foundations of psychology. Similar traditions were followed by the followers of S. S. Korsakov: V. P. Serbsky, V. A. Gilyarovsky and others. They believed that psychological training is necessary for a doctor of any specialty. S. S. Korsakov even applied in 1889 with a petition for the establishment of a special department of psychology at the medical faculty. However, it did not receive support from the university administration.

S. S. Korsakov and his collaborators were the organizers and participants of the Moscow Psychological Society. S. S. Korsakov himself was the chairman of this society. The works that came out of his clinic made a valuable contribution to psychological science - to the understanding of the mechanisms of memory and its disorders, mechanisms and disorders of thinking. Thus, the world famous "Korsakov syndrome" gave new ideas about the temporal structure of human memory, laid the foundations for dividing the types of memory into long-term and short-term. In his work "On the Psychology of Microcephaly," S. S. Korsakov wrote about the absence of a "guiding function of the mind" in idiots, which makes human actions meaningful and expedient. Analysis of the structure of dementia in the work of AA Tokarsky "On stupidity" led to the idea that the disorders of the intellectual activity of patients are not reduced to the disintegration of individual abilities, but represent complex forms of disorders of all purposeful mental activity.

A number of meetings of the Moscow Society of Psychologists were devoted to familiarization with the methods of psychological research, with works on experimental psychological diagnostics of mental illness. Great interest was aroused by the book by A. N. Bernstein "Clinical Methods of Psychological Research of the Mentally Ill" and "Atlas for Experimental Psychological Research of Personality" by FG \u200b\u200bRybakov.

GI Rossolimo's work "Psychological Profiles. A Method for Quantitative Research of Psychological Processes in Normal and Pathological Conditions" was widely known in Russia and abroad. It attempted to transform psychology into an exact science - it proposed a certain system of examination and assessment on a 10-point scale of mental processes. As a result, an individual curve (profile) was obtained that characterizes the level of the "primary", innate, and "secondary", acquired, mind. These were the first attempts at test tests, and G.I. Rossolimo, with his positive aspirations, was one of the founders of pedology in Russia, the methodological and practical inconsistency of which was revealed in the 30s. and received a critical conclusion in the decree of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks dated July 4, 1936.

As a rule, the leading psychoneurologists of pre-revolutionary Russia were the conductors of the advanced ideas of psychology and contributed to its development in the scientific and organizational direction. They were members of scientific psychological societies, editors and authors of psychological journals.

After the Great October Socialist Revolution, it was at the neuropsychiatric congresses that the first reports of the Soviet psychologists who advocated the construction of Marxist psychology, K.N. Vygotsky spoke for the first time at the II Congress, raising his voice against the mechanistic emasculation of the psychology of the mental image.

This situation largely determined the nature of pathopsychological research and the ways of their further development. The close connection with clinical practice and the tendency to theoretically comprehend the obtained facts saved pathopsychologists already at that time from naked empiricism and speculative constructions, which are still characteristic of pathopsychology in many foreign countries. The development of pathopsychology proceeded in line with the general development of psychology as a science based on the foundations of Marxist-Leninist philosophy.

The development of pathopsychology as a special area of \u200b\u200bknowledge was greatly influenced by the ideas of the outstanding Soviet psychologist L. S. Vygotsky: 1) the human brain has different principles of organization than the brain of an animal; 2) the development of higher mental functions is not predetermined by the morphological structure of the brain, they arise not as a result of the maturation of brain structures alone, but are formed in life by appropriating the experience of mankind in the process of communication, training, education; 3) the defeat of the same zones of the cortex has a different meaning at different stages of mental development.

The theoretical ideas of L.S.Vygotsky, which were further developed in the works of his students and collaborators A.R. Luria, A.N. Leontyev, P. Ya.Gal'perin, L.I.Bozhovich, A.V. Zaporozhets, largely determined path of pathopsychological and neuropsychological research in our country.

LS Vygotsky himself headed the pathopsychological laboratory at the Moscow branch of the VIEM on the basis of the clinic. S. S. Korsakov, in which the psychologists G. V. Birenbaum, B. V. Zeigarnik and others worked. Experimental studies of the psychology of mental retardation served as material for L. S. Vygotsky to construct a theory of the connection between the cognitive and motivational spheres in a fundamental discussion with K. Levin (on the connection between intellect and affect).

Experimental research under the leadership of L. S. Vygotsky laid the foundation for a multifaceted study of the decay of thinking by B.V. Zeigarnik and her collaborators in the pathopsychological laboratory of the Institute of Psychiatry of the RSFSR Ministry of Health and Moscow State University. There is no need to further describe the development of Soviet psychology in historical terms, since the substantive characteristics of its achievements are presented in the corresponding chapters of the book. Let's name only the main centers in which pathopsychological studies were carried out.

This is a neuropsychiatric institute named after I. V.M.Bekhterev and Leningrad State University, where for several decades VN Myasishchev directed the research on pathopsychology. In accordance with the traditions of the school of V.M.Bekhterev, on a new methodological basis, in line with the theory of relations of V.N.Myasishchev, research was carried out in different areas of medical psychology. These studies continued the best traditions of the school of V. M. Bekhterev - a holistic approach to personality and intransigence to functionalism: "The psychology of impersonal processes should be replaced by the psychology of an active personality, or personality in activity" [135, 11].

A number of works were devoted to the violation of the structure of the labor activity of patients, the study of the influence of the attitude of patients to work on their performance. On the basis of these studies, V.N.Myasishchev put forward the position that impaired performance should be considered as the main manifestation of a person's mental illness and that the indicator of performance serves as one of the criteria for the mental state of the patient. The works of the Leningrad school of pathopsychologists of this period have not yet lost their relevance, both in content and in experimental methods.

Pathopsychological studies of disorders of cognitive activity and motivational sphere have been widely developed in the laboratory of the Central Institute of Psychiatry of the Ministry of Health of the RSFSR on the basis of the V.I. P. B. Gannushkina (B. V. Zeigarnik, S. Ya. Rubinshtein, T. I. Tepenitsyna, Yu. F. Polyakov, V. V. Nikolaeva). Much work is being done on pathopsychology at the Center for Mental Health of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences (Yu. F. Polyakov, T. K. Meleshko, V. P. Kritskaya, N. V. Kurek, etc.).

The social aspect of pathopsychological research is presented in the psychological laboratory of the Central Scientific Research Institute for the Expertise of Working Ability and Labor Organization of Disabled People, created for the first time in the world in the USSR (V.M.Kogan, E.A.Korobkova, I.N.Dukelskaya, etc.).

In line with the theory of D.N.Uznadze, psychologists and psychiatrists of Georgia have conducted and continue to conduct studies of set disorders in various forms of mental illness.

Since 1949, at the initiative of S.L. Rubinstein, a course on pathopsychology began to be taught at the Moscow State University. MV Lomonosov at the psychological department of the philosophy faculty. Currently, such courses have been introduced into the curricula of all faculties or departments of psychology at universities in the country.

In recent years, the importance of pathopsychology in psychocorrectional work has grown, which is carried out in various types of psychological services: psychocorrection and prevention in the somatic clinic and clinic of neuroses, outpatient departments of crisis states, "helplines", "Family service", etc. Pathopsychologists take part in group psychocorrection (Psychoneurological Institute named after V.M.Bekhterev, Clinic of neuroses, a number of psychiatric hospitals, etc.).

The network of laboratories is expanding to restore both individual impaired functions and the ability to work of sick people. The participation of psychologists is now becoming not only necessary, but often a leading factor both in diagnostic work and in the field of prevention and psychocorrection of mental disorders.

Pathopsychological research in children's psychoneurological institutions has received special development. Techniques are being developed to facilitate the early diagnosis of mental retardation; an analysis of complex pictures of underdevelopment in childhood is carried out in order to search for additional differential diagnostic signs and symptoms; using the position of L. S. Vygotsky about the "zone of proximal development", pathopsychologists are developing methods of "teaching experiment" aimed at identifying prognostically important signs of children's learning ability (S. Ya. Rubinshtein, V. V. Lebedinsky, A. Ya. Ivanova, E. . S. Mandrusova and others). Methods of game psychocorrection are being developed (A.S. Spivakovskaya, I.F.Rapokhina, R.A. Kharitonov, L.M. Khripkova). The role of pathopsychologists in the field of labor, forensic psychiatric and forensic psychological examinations has significantly increased ...

The rapid growth of research and practical work in the field of experimental pathopsychology contributes to the creation of sections in scientific societies of psychologists that unite and coordinate research in the field of pathopsychology. At the all-Union congresses of the country's psychologists, reports of pathopsychologists were widely presented, which concentrated around the following problems: 1) the importance of pathopsychology for the theory of general psychology; 2) problems of psychocorrection; 3) pathology of cognitive activity and personality. Similar symposia were organized at international congresses of psychologists (1966 - Moscow, 1969 - London, 1972 - Tokyo, 1982 - Leipzig).

Thus, at present, an applied field of psychology is developing, which has its own subject and methods - experimental pathopsychology.

The history of the development of pathopsychology and forensic pathopsychology as a science

Until the end of the 19th century, most psychiatrists in the world did not use the data of psychology: the futility of its speculative introspective provisions for the needs of the clinic seemed indisputable. In the psychiatric journals of the 60s-80s of the last century, a lot of works on the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system were published, and in fact there were no psychological articles.

The interest in psychology on the part of leading psychoneurologists arose in connection with a radical turn in its development - the organization in 1879 by W. Wundt in Leipzig of the world's first experimental psychological laboratory. From that moment, psychology became an independent science and the further development of psychiatry was unthinkable outside the union with experimental psychology. “It is no longer possible for a psychiatrist to neglect the provisions of modern psychology, which is based on experiment, and not on speculation,” wrote V.M. Bekhterev (1907).

In the late 19th - early 20th centuries, when the psychological laboratories of E. Kraepelin in Germany (1879), P. Janet in France (1890), V.M. Bekhterev in Kazan (1885), then in Petersburg, S.S. Korsakov in Moscow (1886), P.I. Kovalevsky in Kharkov, a special branch of knowledge is singled out - pathological psychology. Experimental psychological methods for the study of disturbed psyche were developed in the laboratories. At the same time, to compare the results, the mental characteristics of healthy people were studied. Since in Russia the official psychological science stubbornly adhered to the introspective method, remaining in the mainstream of philosophical knowledge, psychiatrists were the first experimental psychologists. In oral speeches and on the pages of the press, they substantiated the need to transform psychology into an experimental science, and proved the inconsistency of speculative speculative constructions.

The clearest idea of \u200b\u200bthe subject and tasks of pathopsychology at the dawn of its formation was contained in the works of V.M. Bekhterev, who defined its subject as "... the study of abnormal manifestations of the mental sphere, since they illuminate the tasks of the psychology of normal persons." (1907). Calling pathological psychology among the branches of "objective psychology", he did not identify the concept of "pathopsychology" and "psychopathology". Deviations and modifications of normal manifestations of mental activity, according to V.M. Bekhterev, are subject to the same basic laws as a healthy psyche. The Psychoneurological Institute, which he organized, simultaneously taught courses in general psychopathology and pathological psychology, i.e. behind them were different disciplines.

Many domestic and foreign scientists who stood at the very origins of the emerging branch of psychology noted that its significance goes beyond the boundaries of applied science within the framework of psychiatry.

Mental disorders were viewed as an experiment of nature, affecting mostly complex mental phenomena, to which experimental psychology had no approach. Thus, psychology received a new tool of knowledge.

In one of the first generalizing works on pathopsychology, "Psychopathology as Applied to Psychology" (1903), the Swiss psychiatrist G. Sterring held the idea that a change in a particular element of mental life as a result of illness makes it possible to judge its significance and place in complex mental phenomena. Pathological material contributes to the formulation of new problems in psychology. In addition, pathopsychological phenomena can serve as a criterion for evaluating psychological theories.

Thus, studies of disorders of mental activity in their very origins were considered by domestic and foreign scientists in the mainstream of psychological knowledge. At the same time, the great importance of experimental psychological research for solving the problems of psychiatry was recognized.

A significant contribution to the development and formation of foreign pathopsychology was made by the studies of E. Kraepelin's school and the appearance in the 20s of this century of works on medical psychology. Among them: "Medical Psychology" E. Kretschmer (1927), which treats the problems of development and mental disorders from the standpoint of constitutionalism, and "Medical Psychology" by P. Janet (1923), devoted to issues of psychotherapy.

The formation of the principles of Russian pathopsychology was influenced by the work of I.M. Sechenov's "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), which brought physiology and psychology closer together. I.M. himself Sechenov attached great importance to the convergence of psychology and psychiatry and even intended to develop medical psychology, which he lovingly called his "swan song" (1952). But circumstances did not allow him to carry out his intentions.

The successor to I.M. Sechenov in the development of medical psychology was V.M. Bekhterev, a psychiatrist by training, the founder of experimental psychology and the founder of pathopsychology.

In his work "Objective Psychology" (1907), he proposed to experimentally investigate various types of activity: how the patient is identified with impressions, the definition of inconsistencies in drawings and stories, the combination of verbal symbols and external impressions, replenishment of syllables and words when they are omitted in the text, determination and differences between objects, the formation of inference from two premises, etc.

However, his mistake was that he mechanically split real activity: he absolutized its external manifestations and ignored the mental image, the motivational component that allows one to see the subject of activity in a person.

As for pathopsychological research, representatives of the school of V.M. Ankylosing spondylitis, many methods have been developed for the experimental psychological study of the mentally ill. Some of them (the method of comparing concepts, defining concepts) are among the most used in Russian psychology.

Have retained their importance for modern science and formulated by V.M. Bekhterev and S.D. Vladychko requirements for the methods: simplicity (for solving experimental problems, the subjects should not have special knowledge, skills) and portability (the possibility of research directly at the patient's bedside, outside the laboratory setting).

The works of the Bekhterev school reflect rich concrete material on disorders of perception and memory, mental activity, imagination, attention and mental performance. The experimental results were compared with the characteristics of the patient's behavior outside the experimental situation.

The basic principles of pathopsychological research in the school of V.M. Ankylosing spondylitis were: the use of a set of techniques, a qualitative analysis of mental disorders, a personal approach, correlation of the research results with the data of healthy individuals of the corresponding age, gender, education.

The use of a complex of techniques, observation of the subject during the experiment, taking into account the peculiarities of his behavior outside the experimental situation, the combination of various experimental techniques for the study of the same pathological phenomena - all this contributed to obtaining a rich objective material.

The principle of qualitative analysis, put forward in the period of the enthusiasm of many researchers by measuring methods (the approach to mental disorders as a quantitative decrease in certain abilities), has become traditional in Russian pathopsychology. But the scientist's theoretical platform, especially during the development of reflexology, limited the analysis to the manifestation of the external features of activity. And the recorded objective material was not brought to a truly psychological analysis.

The valuable and fruitful principle of the personal approach was also put forward by V.M. Bekhterev during the period of domination of functionalism in the world of experimental psychology. "... Everything that can give an objective observation of the patient, from facial expressions and ending with the statements and behavior of the patient, should be taken into account" (1910). But the "objective method" of V.M. Bekhtereva contradicted the possibilities of this principle, and the analysis remained incomplete.

The views of representatives of the school V.M. Bekhterev was greatly influenced by the head of the psychological laboratory of the Psychoneurological Institute A.F. Lazursky. As a student and collaborator of V.M. Bekhterev, he became the organizer of his own psychological school, in which issues of individual and educational psychology were mainly developed, but ideas from these branches were transferred to pathopsychology.

The clinic developed by A.F. Lazursky for the needs of educational psychology is a natural experiment. It was used in the organization of patients' leisure time, their activities and entertainment. For a special purpose, calculating problems, rebuses, riddles, tasks to fill in letters, syllables, etc., missing in the test were offered.

Thus, pathopsychology already in its origins had all the signs necessary to establish its scientific independence as a branch of psychological science: the subject of research is mental disorders; methods - the entire arsenal of psychological methods; the conceptual apparatus is the apparatus of psychological science. Another thing is what content was put into the concept of the psyche by representatives of various psychological trends.

At V.M. Bechterew's connection with psychiatry was carried out through participation in the reconstruction of the psychopathological syndrome characteristic of various mental diseases. Pathopsychological methods were used in pediatric and forensic examinations. V.M. Bekhterev and N.M. Shchelovanov wrote that the data of pathological psychology make it possible to almost accurately recognize mentally incompetent schoolchildren in order to single them out in special institutions for the retarded.

V.M. Bekhterev did not consider the study of the psyche of the mentally ill the key to understanding the inner world of the healthy. From the norm - to the pathology, in order to return the patient's neuropsychic health - this should be the way of the psychiatrist's thoughts. Therefore, in the practice of training a neuropathologist and psychiatrist, and in scientific psychiatric searches of the school of V.M. Bekhterev's psychology of a normal person took pride of place.

Versatile specific research and the development of elementary theoretical foundations allow us to consider the contribution of the school of V.M. Ankylosing spondylitis into pathopsychology, the starting point for the formation of this industry in Russia.

The second major center of Russian psychiatry, in which experimental psychology developed, was the psychiatric clinic of S.S. Korsakov, organized in 1887 at the Medical Faculty of Moscow University. Like all representatives of progressive trends in psychiatry, S.S. Korsakov was of the opinion that only knowledge of the foundations of psychological science makes it possible to correctly understand the disintegration of mental activity of the mentally ill. It is no coincidence that he began reading a course in psychiatry with a presentation of the foundations of psychology.

S.S. Korsakov and his collaborators were the organizers and participants of the Moscow Psychological Society. His school made a valuable contribution to the understanding of the mechanisms of memory and its disorders, mechanisms and disorders of thinking. The famous "Korsakov's syndrome" gave an idea of \u200b\u200bthe temporal structure of human memory, laid the foundations for dividing the types of memory into short and long-term. In the work "On the psychology of microcephaly" S.S. Korsakov wrote about the absence in idiots of the "guiding function of the mind" that makes human actions meaningful and expedient (1894).

As a rule, the leading psychoneurologists of pre-revolutionary Russia were the conductors of the advanced ideas of psychology and contributed to its development in the scientific and organizational direction. They were members of scientific psychological societies, editors and authors of psychological journals.

The formation of pathopsychology as a special area of \u200b\u200bknowledge was greatly influenced by the ideas of the outstanding Soviet psychologist L.S. Vygotsky. In his research, L.S. Vygotsky established the following: the science of laws development and functioning ... History development of psychological science and her development ... psychology, as judicial psychology, ..., neuropsychology, pathopsychology, psychopathology, psychogenetics ...

Psychology as the science

Abstract \u003e\u003e Psychology

Industries as pathopsychology, psychosomatics, psychology of abnormal development; communication ... as judicial psychology, victim psychology, criminal psychology, crime investigation psychology. [edit] History ... name in stories psychology design as science - ...

The data obtained in research within this discipline are of great theoretical and practical importance. Let us consider in more detail the basics of pathopsychology.

general characteristics

In the modern scientific environment, there is some confusion of different concepts, incorrect use of certain terms. In this regard, the need to separate pathopsychology and psychopathology is natural. The latter is considered a branch of medical science. It is focused on the study of diseases of the mental system. Within the framework of this discipline, various kinds of violations and their mechanisms are studied. Pathopsychology is based on the patterns of structure and development of the psyche in the norm. She examines and compares the decay of personality traits with the normal course of processes. Thus, both of these sciences have similar research objects, but different subjects.

Tasks

Pathopsychology is a science aimed at obtaining additional information about the patient's condition. In particular, his cognitive activity, emotional-volitional sphere, personality as a whole are subject to research. This information is needed when making a diagnosis. Experimental methods of pathopsychology make it possible to identify many signs of disorders, to establish their structure and connection with each other.

Another important task, which is solved within the discipline, is to conduct research for examination (judicial, military, labor). In the process of such a procedure, a specialist can establish the structure of violations and their relationship with the intact aspects of the activity of the psyche or carry out differential diagnostics. This research is fraught with certain difficulties. They are primarily due to the patient's interest. In this regard, the patient can underestimate the manifestations of violations, exacerbate them or even simulate them in order to avoid responsibility or to obtain disability. Another task that pathopsychology solves is the study of changes under the influence of therapy. In such cases, similar sets of techniques are used. With repeated research with their help, the dynamics of the state is established, the effectiveness of treatment is determined.

Additional functions

In recent years, experimental pathopsychology has begun to be applied to solve two additional problems. The first is related to rehabilitation measures. During their implementation, specialists pay great attention to the detection of the intact sides of the patient's personality and psyche. In addition, the patient's social environment, the nature of relationships with other people, educational and work attitudes are studied. The purpose of such a study is to develop recommendations that would facilitate faster rehabilitation. The second independent function of specialists is their participation in psychotherapeutic activities. Here, however, it is worth noting that the issue of doctor's participation in them is not sufficiently regulated at the legislative level.

Development of science

As an independent branch, pathopsychology began to form at the beginning of the 20th century. The most clear ideas about the subject of science are reflected in the works of Bekhterev. In his opinion, pathopsychology is the process of studying abnormal manifestations at the initial stages of the formation of a system. Various courses were taught at the institute organized by Bekhterev. At the same time, a clear line was immediately drawn dividing pathopsychology and psychopathology.

Domestic figures

From the very beginning, the development of the industry has been based on strong natural science traditions. The formation of principles and techniques was carried out under the influence of the works of Sechenov. He attached particular importance to the relationship between psychology and psychiatry. Bekhterev became Sechenov's successor on this path. He is considered the founder of the pathopsychological branch in psychological science. Representatives of his school developed many of the mentally ill. They are still widely used in the discipline today. The main principles of the study were also formulated:

Pediatric pathopsychology

Before the works of Zeigarnik appeared in science, it was believed that in a number of neurotic diseases, the patient's behavior begins to move to a lower level, which reflects a certain stage of the child's development. Based on this concept, many scientists have tried to identify the correspondence between the process of personality breakdown and a specific stage of childhood. For example, Kretschmer brought the thinking of the schizophrenic closer to adolescent development. In 1966, at the 8th International Congress, Ajuriaguerra (a Swiss scientist) defended the opinion of a layer-by-layer mental decay from higher to lower forms. Such conclusions were based on a number of observations:

Luria, Zeigarnik, Rubinstein: pathopsychology and biological laws

The data of these researchers concerned reading and writing in patients with vascular diseases, Alzheimer's disease, and brain injuries. Based on the information received, a new point of view was substantiated. It consisted in the fact that the flow is influenced by biological laws. They cannot repeat the principles and stages of development. Even when young, specific brain regions are affected by the disease, the patient's psyche does not acquire the structure of a child's at an early stage of development. The fact that the patient is not able to reason and think at a high level indicates the loss of complex forms of cognition and behavior. But this does not mean that he returns to the childhood stage.

Myasishchev's theory

She also played an important role in the development of pathopsychology. According to the theory, the human personality is presented as a system of the person's relationship with the outside world. Such interactions are characterized by a complex structure and are expressed in mental activity. The disease changes and destroys the formed system of relationships. These disorders, in turn, can provoke illness. Through such contradictions, Myasishchev investigated psychoses.