Nobel laureates: Ilya Mechnikov. Nobel laureates: Paul Ehrlich Nobel Prize 1908

Louis Pasteur - Founder of Immunology

1887 - lecture at the French Academy of Sciences

Principles of prevention of infectious diseases by weakened or killed pathogens (chicken cholera)

In the Russian chronicles, along with numerous descriptions of the diseases of princes and representatives of the upper class (boyars, clergy), horrifying pictures of large epidemics of plague and other infectious diseases are given, which in Russia were called "pestilence." For the period from the XI to the XVIII centuries. the annals mention 47 "morales".They began, as a rule, in the border cities - Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, through which foreign merchant caravans passed

In 1546 Professor of the University of Padua, J. Frakastro wrote his work "On Contagion, Contagious Diseases and Treatment" in three books, in which he significantly shaken the previously prevailing concept of "miasms".

Joseph Lister (1827-1912)

English doctor, surgeon, founder of the theory of antiseptics. He proved that MO cause suppuration of wounds, come from the external environment with dust, tools, honey on hands and clothes. staff. He suggested using carbolic acid.

Paul Ehrlich (1854 - 1915)

The German pharmacologist and immunologist, the first discoveries in the field of chemotherapy, scientifically substantiated and for the first time used drugs for the treatment of syphilis (salvarsan 606 is an arsenic compound).

1908 - Nobel Prize

Sergei Nikolaevich Vinogradsky (1856-1953)

Founder of soil microbiology and the theory of chemosynthesis. He worked in St. Petersburg in the field of microbial ecology, studied MO in the natural environment. He opened MO breathing due to the chemical oxidation of inorganic substances: oxidation of ammonia, sulfur, nitrate.

Nikolay Fedorovich Gamaleya (1859-1949)

Creator of bacteriological stations in Russia, rabies vaccination station

Edward Jenner (1749-1823)

Gloucestershire English physician, founder vaccination (vaccinated with vaccinia to prevent smallpox). Young Jenner had the idea of \u200b\u200binoculating cowpox in a conversation with an elderly milkmaid, whose hands were covered with skin rashes.

1908 G. - I. I. Mechnikov and Ehrlich p.

Phagocytic theory of immunity.

The humoral theory of immunity.

Attempts to clarify the protection mechanisms.

Nobel Prize for the Study of the Nature of Immunity.

I.I. Mechnikov

S. Ivanovka (Kharkov).

1879 - theory of the origin of multicellular organisms.

1882 - phagocytosis.

1883 - phagocytic theory of immunity.

1892 - theory of comparative pathology of inflammation.

Emil Adolf fon Behring (1854 - 1917)

Nobel Prize in 1901 for the discovery of the protective properties of anti-tetanus and anti-diphtheria sera.

Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch (1843 - 1910)

In 1905, Robert Koch was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for "research and discoveries concerning the treatment of tuberculosis".

Ehrlich, Paul (1854-1915)Respiration processes in tissues.

Different forms of leukocytes.

The role of bone marrow in hematopoiesis.

Mast cells.

Method for staining tuberculosis pathogens.

Arsenic treatment for syphilis.

Experimental tumor growth.

Nils Kai Erne (1911, London)

Affinity of AG and AT.

1954 - the theory of selective formation of antibodies (applied the theory of natural selection: antibodies seem to undergo selection)

Side chain theory - 1984 Nobel Prize (AT itself may be AG, and antibodies will be produced on it).

MacFarlane BURNETH (1899 - 1985), Australian

He graduated from the medical faculty in Melbourne, defended his dissertation in London.

In Melbourne - vaccination against diphtheria (Staphylococcus) 1928, death of 12 children.

Returned to England (chicken embryos) - virology, the question is: how does the organism distinguish its own and "not - its"?

The basis of the theory of tolerance ("own-not-own").

1960 - Nobel Prize for clonal selection theory.

Snell, Dosse, Benaceraf

1980 - Nobel Prize for discoveries concerning certain structures on the cell surface that regulate immune functions.

Mechanisms of cell recognition, immune responses, transplant rejection.

Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich lived a decent life and gave this world many important scientific discoveries... In 1908, he won the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology, and this is far from the most important and major achievement in his biography.

Both ours and foreign biologists, physiologists and immunologists have heard about him well. Ilya Ilyich managed to work productively as a pathologist, embryologist, and zoologist. It was he who became one of the founders of evolutionary embryology, discovered phagocytosis and intracellular digestion. He created the comparative pathology of inflammation, the phagocytic theory of immunity and phagocytella, and also founded scientific gerontology.

Undoubtedly, contemporaries are surprised and, at the same time, delighted with the ease and professionalism with which this amazing person managed to cope with so many things at the same time. Whatever he did, Ilya Ilyich prospered everywhere and was not afraid to share his ideas, thanks to which he won respect among colleagues and recognition of the entire scientific world.

Family of the great scientist

The famous scientist was born on May 15, 1845 in the Kharkov region, in the family of the landowner Ilya Ivanovich Mechnikov, who came from an old Moldavian boyar family. His mother's name was Emilia Lvovna Nevakhovich. She is the daughter of the famous Jewish publicist Leib Neuekhovich Nevakhovich. This man is considered the founder of Russian-Jewish literature.

She also had two brothers: Mikhail Lvovich became famous as a cartoonist and became the publisher of the first comic collection Yeralash in Russia, and Aleksandr Lvovich was in charge of the repertoire of the Imperial Theaters and was a good playwright.

Ilya Ivanovich Mechnikov also has two siblings. The first is called Lev - he is a Swiss geographer and sociologist, became a member of the national liberation movement in Italy, an ardent anarchist. The second - Ivan, became the Tula provincial prosecutor, he was also the prototype of the protagonist of Leo Tolstoy's story “The Death of Ivan Ilyich”.

Not surprisingly, with such a pedigree, Mechnikov had no choice but to become a famous scientist and make a significant contribution to various scientific fields.

First researches and achievements

In 1864, Ilya Ilyich graduated from V. Karazin Kharkiv National University and a year later discovered the phenomenon of intracellular digestion when studying planaria. In this he was assisted by Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov, a famous surgeon and anatomist, zoologist R. Leikart and physiologist K. Siebolt. It was they who supported him in the early stages of development and introduced him to other scientists, including the biologist A.O. Kovalevsky.

Working in Germany and Italy, Ilya Ilyich discovered new classes of invertebrates, and also proved the unity of the origin of them and vertebrates.

For these and other studies, he earned the position of associate professor at Novorossiysk University, and thus, three years after graduation, he defended his master's thesis at St. Petersburg University, and in 1868 became a privat-docent of this educational institution.

A little later, on the recommendation of the outstanding physiologist I.M. Sechenov, he was offered the position of professor at the Military Medical Academy. This is an incredibly prestigious medical institution, which trained the class ranks of the military department, but the scientist refused in favor of Novorossiysk University in Odessa. Together with him, N.A. Umov, Sechenov, as well as A.O. Kovalevsky got a job there.

In 1875, he discovered phagocytic immunity, an extremely important function of intracellular digestion. In 1879 he proposed a biological method for protecting plants from a variety of pests.

Personal life

Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich had a wife, L.V. Feodorovich. In 1873, she died of tuberculosis and hard times fell for the scientist. Not wanting to accept such a huge loss, he tried to commit suicide. Fortunately, he did not succeed, and after a short period of rehabilitation, he began to study this disease and create a cure for it.

However, Ilya Ilyich did not grieve for a long time, despite his attempts to commit suicide, and two years after the death of his wife, he married again. O. N. Belokopytova, his assistant, became his second wife.

Life path

Like his brother, Ilya Ilyich was always a rebel, and when the education policy pursued by the tsarist government became completely unbearable, he opened his own private laboratory in protest. It happened in 1886 in Odessa. It was the first Russian and the second in the world bacteriological station, where research was carried out to combat infectious diseases. Despite the fact that things were going well for him in Russia, a year later he left for Paris and joined the work of his friend, chemist and microbiologist, Louis Pasteur. He worked in his laboratory at the university opened by Pasteur. In 1905, Mechnikov took the position of deputy director of this educational institution.

The scientist spent the rest of his life in Paris, but, despite this, he always remembered where his homeland was and visited Russia with pleasure.

In 1911, he led an expedition of the Pasteur Institute to the outbreak of plague in Russia, where he tried not only to deal with the treatment of this ailment, but also wanted to find means of protection against tuberculosis. In addition, Mechnikov regularly corresponded with other domestic scientists and even published his works in local journals.

In total, Ilya Ilyich lived for 71 years. He died in Paris on July 15, 1916 due to several myocardial infarctions.

As a true scientist and fighter for the development of science, he bequeathed his body to the university for medical research, followed by cremation. His ashes were laid to rest on the territory of the Pasteur Institute, which became a real home for the scientist.

The most important discoveries:

1879 - discovered the causative agents of mycoses of insects.

1866-1886 - became the founder of comparative and evolutionary embryology.

1882 - proposed a new theory of the origin of multicellular animals, which was called "Phagocytella theory".

1882 - discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis.

1892 - Developed a comparative pathology of inflammation.

1901 - proposed the phagocytic theory of immunity, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1908.

1903 - for the first time, together with E. Ru, experimentally caused syphilis in monkeys.

He compiled a whole set of preventive and hygienic means to combat self-poisoning of the body, such as sterilizing food.

On the basis of Mechnikov's teachings about orthobiosis, a new direction appeared called "orthobiotics".

He put forward several new ideas that surpassed modern understanding of some of the issues of evolution.

He became the founder of the first Russian school of immunologists, microbiologists, and pathologists.

Took an active part in the creation of research institutions.

He developed various forms of combating infectious diseases.

Price Realized: $ 59

Lot description: METCHNIKOFF, ELIE. 1845-1916. L'Immunite dans les Maladies Infectieuses. Paris: Masson & Cie, 1901. ix, 601 pp. Illustrated with 45 color figures throughout the text. 8vo (240x155 mm). Contemporary quarter black morocco over blue Turkish marbled paper boards, gilt lettered and decorated spine. Ownership stamp to title-page, somewhat toned, otherwise internally clean, covers with some wear to extremities and a few stray marks, otherwise an excellent copy. First edition of Elie Metchnikoff's most important work, in which he explains his theory on lactic-acid bacteria, for which this Russian zoologist and microbiologist received (with Paul Ehrlich) the 1908 Nobel Prize for Medicine. Garrison & Morton, 2555. PMM 402 (mentioned)

Care: $ 59 (RUB 4,409). Bonhams auction. Fine Books and Manuscripts. February 18, 2007. Los Angeles. Lot number 111.

Metchnikoff E. L "immunite dans les Maladies Infectieues.Paris, Masson & C-ie, editeurs Libraires de L "Academie de medecine, 1901. IX, 600,. 45 colors. Ill. In the text. In print binding of the era with embossing on the spine. 24x17 cm. The first edition of the famous work Russian scientist in French. ”All over the world, book collectors of priority editions value this particular edition, but it is better to have in the collection also the edition in Russian, which came out two years later.

"Immunity in infectious diseases" by Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, professor at the Pasteur Institute. Translation of the composition "L" immunite dans les Maladies Infectieues "into Russian, edited by the author. With 45 colored drawings in the text. St. Petersburg, published by K.L. Rikker, 1903.IV, 604, VII. With col. silt The first edition of I.I. Mechnikov (1845-1916) in Russian, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1908.

Mechnikov,Ilya Ilyah (fr. Elie Metchnikoff; 1845, p. Ivanovka, Kharkiv province - 1916, Paris) - Russian and French biologist (microbiologist, cytologist, embryologist, immunologist, physiologist and pathologist). Laureate Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1908 ). One of the founders of evolutionaryembryology , discovererphagocytosis and intracellular digestion, creator of the comparative pathology of inflammation,phagocytic theory of immunity, phagocytella theory, founder of scientificgerontology.Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov was born on his father's estate Ivanovka, Kupyansk district, Kharkov province, in the family of a guard officer, landowner Ilya Ivanovich Mechnikov (1810-1878) and Emilia Lvovna Mechnikova (nee Nevakhovich, 1814-1879) The parents were introduced by Emilia Lvovna's brother, a colleague of Ilya Ivanovich. On the paternal side, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov came from an oldmoldavian boyar family ... Mother - Emilia Lvovna Nevakhovich, nativeWarsaw - daughter of a famousjewish publicist and educator Leib Neuekhovich (Lev Nikolaevich) Nevakhovich (1776-1831), considered the founder of the so-called Russian-Jewish literature (his book "The Cry of the Daughterjewish ", St. Petersburg, 1803). Brothers Emilia Nevakhovich:Mikhail L. Nevakhovich (1817-1850) - cartoonist, publisher of the first comic collection in Russia "Yeralash "(St. Petersburg, 1846-1849); Alexander Lvovich Nevakhovich (d. 1880) - playwright, head of the repertoire of the Imperial Theaters in 1837-1856. Ivan Ilyich Mechnikov was friends with both of his wife's brothers.The elder brother of I.I. Mechnikov -Lev Ilyich Mechnikov - Swiss geographer and sociologist,anarchist , member of the national liberation movement inItaly (risorgimento ). Another older brother, Ivan Ilyich Mechnikov (1836-1881), served as prosecutor of the Tula district court, chairman of the Kiev court chamber and became the prototype of the hero of the storyL.N. Tolstoy " Death of Ivan Ilyich"(1886).Having gone bankrupt, Ilya Ivanovich Mechnikov was forced to leave St.Petersburg and settle in his own estate in Ivanovka, where in 1843 his son Nikolai was born, andtwo years later, Ilya. Soon after the birth of I.I. The Mechnikov family moved to a more spacious house at the other end of their father's estate inPanasovka (of the same Kupyansk district), where the future scientist spent his childhood. Nikolai Mechnikov became the provincial secretary, for his participation in the student riots of 1868-1869 inKharkiv University was placed under strict police surveillance. In the Mechnikov family, in addition to four sons, a daughter, Ekaterina (1834), also grew up.The niece of I.I. Mechnikova (sister's daughter) - opera singerMaria Kuznetsova.

Scientific activity of I.I. Mechnikov started very early. In 1864, at the age of nineteen, having graduated from Kharkov University and already having several published works, he immediately went abroad, where he stayed for three years. There he met with representatives of foreign science and worked in the laboratories of the largest scientists in the West. There he met with his famous compatriots M.A. Bakunin, A.I. Herzen, I.M. Sechenov and A.O. Kovalevsky. During these years, he made a number of significant discoveries in the field of zoology and embryology and defined both the range of his main topics and the main directions of his scientific activity. 1865 - the year of meeting I.I. Mechnikov with A.O. Kovalevsky in Naples - was that stage in his life, which, perhaps, determined his entire future destiny as a scientist. It was here, already sufficiently familiar with Darwinian teaching from his student years, that he was under the direct influence of A.O. Kovalevsky subordinated all his work to a single idea - the proof of evolution. The main themes of I.I. Mechnikov during this period of his scientific activities refer to the embryonic development of various representatives of invertebrates. Together with A.O. Kovalevsky, with whom I.I. Mechnikov, the closest, friendly relations were established, he became the founder of a special branch of biology - comparative embryology, which played and continues to play an outstanding role in the development of evolutionary teaching.In Italy I.I. Mechnikov met and became close friends also with his other great compatriot I.M. Sechenov.By the time of his return to Russia in 1867, I.I. Mechnikov, still a very young scientist, managed to do a lot. Having studied the development of cephalopods, he for the first time absolutely accurately established in invertebrates the presence in embryonic development of three germ layers, well known and studied in vertebrates. This provided proof of the unity of the development of vertebrates and invertebrates. The work on the development of cephalopods was his master's thesis, which he defended at the University of St. Petersburg.In addition, I.I. Mechnikov conducted a number of studies highlighting the development of insects. Studying ciliary worms - planarian, he made his first observation of intracellular digestion. Together with A.O. Kovalevsky in 1867, he received the Karl Baer Prize of the first degree, awarded for outstanding work in embryology. In the same year he was chosen as an assistant professor at Odessa University. But already in 1868, after successful speeches at the congress of naturalists and doctors in St. Petersburg, he became an associate professor at St. Petersburg University and in the same year defended his doctoral dissertation on the development of one of the representatives of crustaceans.In the period from 1868 to 1870 I.I. With short interruptions, Mechnikov again worked abroad, mainly in Naples and Messina, studying the development of sponges, coelenterates, echinoderms, ascidians, and insects. He made a number of significant discoveries and made many important generalizations about the unity of the origin of various systematic groups of animals.In 1870 I.I. Mechnikov was elected a professor at Odessa University and held this position until 1882. This period of I.I. Mechnikov is full of the most intense work and deep experiences, both personal and social. He grieved the death of his first wife, who died in 1873. The progressive scientist cost a lot of energy and strength to fight the reactionary professors and the administration of Odessa University, especially in recent years. After rejection of one of the requirements of the progressive group of professors I.I. Mechnikov submitted his resignation letter and left the university.Despite, however, the extremely unfavorable situation prevailing in Odessa, I.I. Mechnikov managed to make many remarkable scientific discoveries, conclusions and generalizations during these years. Continuing research in the field of comparative embryology, he made generalizing conclusions and, in particular, expressed his theory of "parenchymella", which is an essential stage in the development of the theory of the origin of multicellular animals. According to this theory, multicellular animals descend from an extinct ancestor - a creature in whose structure there were only two parts: a layer of outer cells and an inner part consisting of a continuous mass of cells capable of capturing and digesting food particles - "parenchyma". Such a hypothetical animal I.I. Mechnikov called it "parenchymella", and later - "phagocytella".His theory of parenchymella I.I. Mechnikov contrasted the well-known "theory of gastrea" by E. Haeckel, according to which the primitive, initial form for multicellular animals was recognized as a hypothetical "gastria" - a creature built of two layers of cells and possessing a gastrointestinal, gastric cavity.Having established a more primitive form in the embryonic development of some invertebrates, I.I. Mechnikov concluded that the original ancestor of multicellular animals must have been more primitively organized than Haeckel's gastrea. Confirmation of his theory I.I. Mechnikov saw in the animal he discovered from the group of worms - the planaria, which had a solid mass of cells in place of the intestinal cavity that digested food, as well as in a special flagellate colonial animal, discovered later by S. Kent, which in many structural features coincided with the hypothetical phagocytella.For that period in the development of evolutionary doctrine, when the establishment of genealogical (kinship) links of organic forms was required to prove the correctness of its main provisions, the theory of phagocytella was of outstanding importance. She also had a great influence on the modern solution of the question of the origin of multicellular animals.During the same period of his work I.I. Mechnikov paid special attention to the development of the problem of intracellular digestion and, in this regard, created a special branch of modern biology - experimental morphology, the founder of which, along with A.O. Kovalevsky, admittedly, he is. In the same years I.I. Mechnikov discovered intracellular digestion in free, mobile cells of connective tissue - the so-called amoebocytes - invertebrates. Seeing this is the firsta link in that chain of observations and thoughts that led him to the creation of the doctrine of phagocytosis and the foundations of the doctrine of the protective properties of blood.In the fall of 1882 I.I. Mechnikov left for Italy and worked in Messina. This autumn and spring of 1883 were a significant stage in his scientific life. Studying the larvae of sea stars and their specially mobile free cells - amoebocytes, endowed with the ability to digest the organic particles they swallow, I.I. Mechnikov thought about the role these cells can play in the body, in addition to participating in digestion processes. He came up with the idea that the significance of these cells may lie in their protective role as elements that are capable of capturing, digesting and thereby neutralizing foreign bodies harmful to the body.The brilliant in their simplicity and convincing experiments of I.I. Mechnikov was able to confirm his assumption. The foreign bodies artificially introduced into the body of the larvae were captured or enveloped by the amoebocytes that gathered around them and ultimately turned out to be either digested by them or isolated. Based on the ability of motile cells to absorb ("devour") foreign particles, I.I. Mechnikov called them phagocytes. This term, as you know, has become as popular and generally accepted as such generally known concepts as cell, tissue, etc.These experiments turned out to be a turning point in the work of I.I. Mechnikov. Here's what he himself wrote about it:

"Messina marked a turning point in my scientific life. Before that, a zoologist — I immediately became a pathologist. I found myself on a new road, which became the main content of my subsequent activity."

In a whole series of works of the subsequent period I.I. Mechnikov showed that phenomena completely analogous to those that he observed in his experiments on the larvae of starfish are found in all types of animals with mesodermal tissues, that is, tissues developing from the intermediate germ layer, the mesoderm. In complex animals, these tissues include primarily blood and the so-called connective tissue, which include cellular elements capable of phagocytosing and digesting captured organic particles. In higher animals, for example, in all vertebrates, the most typical phagocytes are white blood cells - leukocytes. They are the main "protective" cells in these animals, with the help of which the body isolates and neutralizes foreign bodies that penetrate into it, including the causative agents of infectious diseases - pathogenic microbes.The first contours of his doctrine of the protective factors of the organism I.I. Mechnikov presented in a report at the congress of naturalists and doctors in Odessa in 1883. This report "On the healing powers of the body" is a significant milestone, marking the emergence of one of the remarkable achievements of science in the treasury of human knowledge.Since 1883, I.I. Mechnikov devoted almost all his attention to the doctrine of phagocytosis and turned to a detailed and comprehensive study of inflammatory processes, infectious diseases and their causative agents - pathogenic microbes. In these studies, which constituted a whole series of classic works, I.I. Mechnikov remained faithful to evolutionary principles and the comparative method. To confirm his conclusions, he drew on data gleaned from the study of infections in various representatives of the animal world - from protozoa to higher vertebrates. Thus, the consistent course of research by I.I. Mechnikov prepared a new branch of biology and medicine - comparative pathology.Simultaneously with the work on the substantiation and development of the phagocytic theory, II Mechnikov did not abandon his previous topics on the embryology of invertebrates. Taking advantage of his two visits abroad by the sea, in 1884 and 1885 he continued his research into the development of echinoderms and jellyfish. These studies, in which I.I.Mechnikov finally formulated his theory of phagocytella, compiled material for a number of articles and monographs on the development of jellyfish, which are, admittedly, classic works in the field of comparative and evolutionary embryology.In 1886 II Mechnikov became the head of the first in Russia Odessa bacteriological station. But the activity of the station could not be developed properly because of the obstacles posed by the inert and sometimes hostile tsarist officials. Desperate for the possibility of fruitful work in Russia, I. I. Mechnikov decided to leave his homeland and seek refuge abroad.In 1887 he undertook a trip abroad to find the most suitable place for work. During this trip, he participated in the Vienna International Congress of Hygienists, which brought together the most prominent bacteriologists of the time. Using Pasteur's invitation, who agreed to organize an independent laboratory for I.I. Mechnikov, he moved in the fall of 1888 to Paris, where he worked until his death.The twenty-eight-year Parisian period of I. I. Mechnikov's life is a period of maturity, general recognition and world fame.The first years of this period were full of heated polemics with opponents of the phagocytic theory, mainly German scientists (Koch, Buchner, Bering, Pfeifer). The latter contrasted Mechnikov's phagocytic or cellular theory with the so-called humoral theory, which put forward not cells, but specific chemicals of body fluids as the main factors of the body's defense reactions.To confirm the fidelity of his views, I.I. Mechnikov, already with a whole group of his students and collaborators, studied in all details the phenomenon of immunity to infectious diseases and proved that phagocytes play a decisive role in these phenomena. The range of his research includes a wide variety of infectious diseases - typhoid, cholera, plague, tuberculosis, tetanus and others - and their causative agents. In the course of these works, I.I. Mechnikov and his school succeed in solving a number of particular questions of bacteriology and epidemiology, which are of great practical importance and underlie modern methods of combating infectious diseases.Laboratory of I.I. Mechnikov in Paris quickly became the center of advanced medical thought, to which doctors and scientists from all over the world aspired. Around I.I. Mechnikov, talented employees and students gathered, from whom the greatest bacteriologists and immunologists grew (P. Roux, Borde, the Russian scientist Bezredka). Many Russian doctors also passed through Mechnikov's laboratory.In 1891 I.I. Mechnikov was elected an honorary doctor of the University of Cambridge and participated in the London International Congress, where he presented a summary of the results of his research and very successfully argued with opponents of his theory.In the same year at the Pasteur Institute I.I. Mechnikov conducted his remarkable cycle of lectures on inflammation, published the following year in 1892 as a separate book called Lectures on the Comparative Pathology of Inflammation. The appearance of this book in Russian and French was one of the remarkable events in the history of biology and medicine. Doctors and scientists all over the world were faced with a harmonious system of views and methods, which were destined to radically restructure a number of established positions and open up the broadest prospects for medical science. The significance of this book is far from being exhausted by the fact that I.I. Mechnikov, on the basis of his own works and a critical revision of numerous literary data, created and substantiated a new harmonious doctrine of inflammation. Revealing one of the essential chapters of general pathology - the doctrine of inflammation, I.I. At the same time, Mechnikov created and firmly substantiated a new concept of pathological processes as reactions of the body.In his "Lectures" I.I. Metchnikov, with exceptional completeness and brilliance, showed in what ways the evolutionary complication of inflammatory processes took place from primitive Don animals and more complexly organized ones. The comparative evolutionary method allowed him to reveal, in a complex complex of phenomena that characterize inflammation in higher animals and humans in general, its main factors common to all animals, and those additional phenomena that represent, as it were, evolutionary layers that developed as the organization became more complex. animals. Thus, the fruitfulness of the comparative method was first proved with complete evidence and exhaustive convincingness.All these works by I.I. Mechnikov as a biologist and pathologist made tremendous changes in the general understanding of painful phenomena and deeply affected the very foundations of general pathology. General theoretical conclusions of I.I. Mechnikov, according to which painful phenomena are not something absolutely divorced from the so-called "normal" physiological properties and manifestations of the organism, they created solid foundations for overcoming elements of scholasticism and metaphysics in theoretical medicine.In 1894 I.I. Mechnikov took part in the international congress of bacteriologists in Budapest and, armed with the richest material from his new studies of the phenomena of immunity in infectious diseases, he again successfully defended his phagocytic theory.The time span between 1894 and 1897 filled with intensive work by II Mechnikov and his entire laboratory, in connection with the new discoveries of supporters of the humoral theory in the field of immunology, which seemed to undermine the foundations of the theory of phagocytosis. However, carefully designed experiments and numerous observations made it possible for I.I. Mechnikov and his colleagues show that those factors in the phenomena of immunity, which at first glance have nothing to do with phagocytes, nevertheless turn out to be somehow connected with their vital activity.In 1897 I.I. Mechnikov spoke at a congress in Moscow with reports on the plague issue and on the results of his work on phagocytic reactions against microbial poisons - toxins. These studies, devoted to the study of toxins of various microbes that cause infectious diseases, the mechanism of their action and the body's responses to this action, were, as it were, the last final series of works that allowed I.I.Mechnikov to summarize his many years of research on immunity. This result was summed up by him in his report at the international congress in Paris in 1900 and in his famous work "Immunity in Infectious Diseases", published in 1901.This book, which I.I. Mechnikov considered it as an inseparable link in the chain of his work in the field of comparative pathology and a direct continuation of the book on inflammation, contains a harmonious system of views and ideas that had a huge impact on all subsequent work in the field of immunology and entered as the main component of the modern theory of immunity.Since the beginning of the twentieth century, I.I. Mechnikov is attracted by the questions of old age and death, to the solution of which he seeks to approach as a biologist and pathologist. In this regard, interest arises in the study of the nature of man and his specific features as a special being in the general zoological chain. The result of this interest was a series of works that provided material for the book "Studies on Human Nature".In works devoted to the causes of aging and possible ways of overcoming premature senile senility, II Mechnikov especially puts forward the poisoning of the body by toxins of microbes that are constantly present and developing in the intestine. Studies of the intestinal flora of adults, children and animals led I.I. Mechnikov to the idea that it is quite possible to regulate the intestinal flora with appropriate dietary regimens and thus minimize intoxication leading to premature aging.Being a convinced atheist and materialist, I.I. Mechnikov argued with great persuasiveness that the power of progressive knowledge - and, first of all, medicine - would ultimately allow human life to be rebuilt in such a way that death would occur only when the "life instinct" naturally and imperceptibly passed into the "death instinct" These optimistic thoughts, developed in the book "Studies of Optimism", published in 1907, as well as the entire optimistic worldview so characteristic of I.I. Mechnikov in the last third of his life, changed the pessimistic moods that had dominated him in his youth.In 1908 I.I. Mechnikov, together with P. Erlich, an infectious disease specialist and immunologist, received the international Nobel Prize. This was the reason for I.I. Mechnikov to Sweden (the Nobel Prize was awarded in Stockholm) and to Russia, undertaken by him in 1909 and which gave him the opportunity to meet his genius compatriot, writer L.N. Tolstoy.In 1911 I.I. Mechnikov leads an expedition organized by him to study tuberculosis among the population of the Kalmyk steppes. This expedition, which included, in addition to I.I. Mechnikova, a number of outstanding scientists, collected extremely valuable material and gave I.I. Mechnikov the opportunity to draw very important conclusions about the natural immunization of the population against tuberculosis.In 1913 the book by I.I. Mechnikov's "Forty Years of Searching for a Rational Worldview", in which he collected all his general works, starting with various articles on "disharmony" in human nature. This entire series of works illustrates with great clarity his path from early pessimism to the bright materialistic optimism of adulthood and is an excellent monument to the ideological growth of one of the greatest representatives of modern science.In 1915 I.I. Mechnikov fell ill and died on July 15, 1916.

Great Jews Mudrova Irina Anatolyevna

Frank Ilya Mikhailovich

soviet physicist, 1958 Nobel laureate

Born on October 23, 1908 in the family of the mathematician Mikhail Ludvigovich Frank and Elizaveta Mikhailovna Frank (ur. Gratsianova), who had recently moved to St. Petersburg from Nizhny Novgorod.

The future physicist came from a well-known Moscow Jewish family - his great-grandfather, Moisei Mironovich Rossiyansky, became one of the founders of the Jewish community in Moscow in the 1860s. Grandfather Ludwig Semyonovich Frank (1844-1882), was a graduate of Moscow University (1872), moved to Moscow from the Vilnius province during the Polish uprising of 1863 and as a military doctor participated in the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, being awarded the Order of Stanislav and the nobility. Father's brother (uncle of Ilya Mikhailovich Frank) - prominent Russian philosopher Semyon Ludvigovich Frank; another brother is an artist, sculptor, set designer and book illustrator Leon (Lev Vasilyevich) Zak (pseudonym Leon Rossiyansky, 1892-1980).

The family lived off their father's modest teaching salary. Only after the revolution did he become a professor. The mother graduated from nursing courses, and then the Women's Medical Institute. After the revolution, she worked as a doctor for many years, mainly as a specialist in bone tuberculosis. The boy was sick a lot in childhood and did not study at school very regularly. He was fond of biology and willingly studied mathematics on his own, which was facilitated by the help of his father and books. In the 1920s, the family lived in the Crimea. After graduating from high school, Ilya entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics at Moscow State University in 1926. From the second year he began working in the laboratory of S.I. Vavilov, whom he considered his teacher. Under Vavilov's guidance, Frank completed his first work on luminescence.

After graduating from Moscow State University in 1930, he worked for several years at the State Optical Institute in Leningrad in the laboratory of A.N. Terenin. Here Frank carried out original research on physical optics and photochemical reactions, for which he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences in 1934.

In 1934, at the suggestion of S.I. Vavilov Frank went to work at the Physics Institute. P.N. Lebedev, USSR Academy of Sciences (FIAN). Here he worked until 1970 as a senior researcher, head of department, head of the laboratory of the atomic nucleus. From the very beginning, back in 1934, he became interested in the work of P.A. Cherenkov on the glow of pure liquids under the influence of gamma rays, later called the "Cherenkov effect". Together with S.I. Vavilov took part in discussing the progress of these studies. He made a certain contribution to the understanding of the results, especially in the issue of radiation directivity. Together with I.E. Tamm in 1937 explained this new phenomenon as the emission of an electron when moving in a medium with superluminal speed and developed his theory. This discovery led to the creation of a new method for detecting and measuring the speed of high-energy nuclear particles. This method is of great importance in modern experimental nuclear physics. For this work, Frank and others were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1958. In his Nobel lecture, Frank pointed out that the Cherenkov effect "has numerous applications in the physics of high-energy particles." "The connection between this phenomenon and other problems has also been clarified," he added, "such as the connection with plasma physics, astrophysics, the problem of generating radio waves and the problem of particle acceleration."

Academician Vavilov characterized his student on July 2, 1938: “Using his deep knowledge in the field of physical optics, I.M. Frank took part in the work of the Stratospheric Commission of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR on observing the glow of the night sky, together with N.A. Dobrotin and P.A. Cherenkov. This work led to the discovery of a new effect of a sharp variation in the intensity of the night sky glow during the night. Under the leadership of I.M. Frank, for the first time on Elbrus, it was possible to observe cosmic rays with the Wilson camera.

In general, I.M. Frank is an exceptional representative of young Soviet physics in his erudition, experimental art, and deep physical intuition. "

In 1940, Frank began lecturing at the Department of Nuclear Physics of Moscow State University, which he headed. This work was interrupted by the war. With its beginning, together with the Physics Institute, the scientist was evacuated to Kazan, where he remained until 1943. At the end of the war and the first post-war years, Frank focused on research in reactor physics, carried out in close contact with I.V. Kurchatov. For work on the physics of reactors and work on the study of nuclear reactions of the lightest nuclei, also carried out on a special assignment from the government, he was awarded orders and the Stalin Prize in 1953.

In 1946, Frank was elected a corresponding member of the USSR Academy of Sciences.

Frank's specialization in neutron physics began with research in reactor physics. Research in the physics of slow neutrons has become one of the fruitful areas of work developed by the scientist at the Lebedev Physical Institute.

In 1988, the scientist continued his work in the field of neutron physics and theoretical research in electrodynamics. In particular, he has prepared for publication a monograph summarizing a number of earlier results.

Frank had three Orders of Lenin (1952, 1953, 1975), the Order of the October Revolution (1978), two Orders of the Red Banner of Labor (1948, 1968), the Order of the Badge of Honor (1945), as well as medals, including number "For valiant labor in the Great Patriotic War 1941-1945 ". He was a laureate of two Stalin Prizes (1946, 1953) and the USSR State Prize (1971).

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The Obel Prize is an international award that has been awarded annually since 1901 for outstanding contributions to science, literature and the development of society. The first prize of its kind in the world.

“All my movable and immovable property should be converted by my executors into liquid values, and the capital thus collected should be placed in a reliable bank. The income from investments should belong to the fund, which will annually distribute them in the form of bonuses to those who have brought the greatest benefit to humanity during the previous year ... The indicated percentages must be divided into five equal parts, which are intended: one part - to the one who makes the most important discovery or invention in the field of physics; the other is to the one who will make the most important discovery or improvement in the field of chemistry; third - to the one who will make the most important discovery in the field of physiology or medicine; the fourth - to the one who creates the most outstanding literary work of the idealistic trend; fifth - to the one who made the most significant contribution to the cohesion of nations, the elimination of slavery or the reduction of the existing armies and the promotion of peace conventions ... My special desire is that the nationality of the candidates is not taken into account when awarding the prizes ... "

Kultura.RF has compiled its own list of the most famous laureates.

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936)

1904 Nobel Prize "For works on the physiology of digestion, which expanded and changed the understanding of the vital aspects of this issue"

The first Russian Nobel laureate, an outstanding scientist, the pride of Russian science and “the first physiologist of the world,” as his colleagues called him at one of the international congresses. None of the Russian scientists of that time, not even Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev, received such fame abroad. Pavlov was called "a romantic, almost legendary person", "citizen of the world", and a friend of the scientist, writer Herbert Wells, said about him: "It is a star that illuminates the world, shedding light on paths not yet known."

Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916)

1908 Nobel Prize "For work on immunity"

The famous Russian biologist believed in the limitless possibilities of science, "which alone can lead mankind on the true path." Ilya Mechnikov is the founder of the Russian school of microbiologists and immunologists. Among his students are Alexander Bezredka, Lev Tarasevich, Daniil Zabolotny, Yakov Bardakh. Mechnikov was not only a scientist, but also a writer who left behind a vast legacy - popular science and scientific philosophical works, memoirs, articles, translations.

Lev Davidovich Landau (1908-1968)

Nobel Prize 1962 "For pioneering research in the theory of condensed matter, especially liquid helium"

The outstanding Soviet scientist devoted his entire life to theoretical physics. Carried away by science as a child, he vowed to never "smoke, drink and never marry." The last vow did not work out: Landau was a famous ladies' man. He had an inimitable sense of humor, for which his students especially adored him. Once at a lecture, a physicist gave an example of his playful classification of sciences, saying that "sciences are natural, unnatural and unnatural." Lev Landau's only non-physical theory was the theory of happiness. He believed that everyone should and even must be happy. For this, the physicist derived a simple formula, which contained three parameters: work, love and communication with people.

Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (1921-1989)

1975 Nobel Prize "For fearless support for the fundamental principles of peace among people and courageous struggle against abuse of power and any form of suppression of human dignity"

The famous Soviet physicist, one of the creators of the hydrogen bomb, public figure, dissident and human rights activist did not support the general line of the party, opposed the arms race, nuclear weapons tests, and demanded the abolition of the death penalty. For which in the Soviet Union he was persecuted and was deprived of all awards, and in Sweden he received the Nobel Peace Prize ...

Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (1894-1984)

1978 Nobel Prize "For Basic Research and Discoveries in Low Temperature Physics"

“I firmly believe in the internationality of science and believe that real science should be beyond all political passions and struggles, no matter how they try to involve it there. And I believe that the scientific work that I have been doing all my life is the property of all mankind, wherever I do it. ", - wrote Pyotr Kapitsa in 1935. The world famous physicist worked in Cambridge, was a full member of the Royal Society of London, the founder of the Institute for Physical Problems, the first head of the Department of Low Temperature Physics at the Physics Faculty of Moscow State University, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. The famous physicist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe wrote about his student: "Petr Leonidovich Kapitsa, combining in himself a brilliant experimenter, an excellent theoretician and a brilliant engineer, is one of the most striking figures in modern physics."

Despite the generous scattering of Russian literary geniuses, only five of them managed to receive the highest award.

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy was nominated for the prize in 1909, but never received it. The great Russian writer, back in 1906, said that he would refuse the Nobel Prize (both in peace and in literature) if his candidacy had won: "This will save me from a big difficulty - to dispose of this award, because any money, in my opinion, brings only evil."

Ivan Bunin (1873-1953)

Nobel Prize 1933 "For the true artistic talent with which he recreated the typical Russian character in prose"

The first Russian writer to receive the Nobel Prize. Bunin emigrated from revolutionary Russia and at that time had already lived in France for 13 years. Two Russian émigré-writers claimed the Nobel Prize - Bunin and Merezhkovsky, and there were two camps of supporters, betting ... However, Ivan Alekseevich's victory, perhaps, upset the rivals, but not for long: thus, shaking hands with Bunin, Merezhkovsky's wife Zinaida Gippius said honestly: "I congratulate you and envy you." The main thing was that the award went to a Russian writer.

Boris Pasternak (1890-1960)

Nobel Prize 1958 "For significant achievements in modern lyric poetry, as well as for the continuation of the traditions of the great Russian epic novel"

Learning about the award from the personal telegram of the head of the Nobel Committee, addressed to the poet and writer, Pasternak replied: "Infinitely grateful, touched, proud, surprised, confused." However, the Soviet leadership received this news extremely negatively. A campaign began against the poet, and he was forced to refuse the Nobel Prize, otherwise he could lose his citizenship and be expelled from the USSR. But the delay (Pasternak did not refuse immediately, but did it a week later) turned out to be disastrous. He became a "persecuted poet" - however, he worried not so much about himself as about his relatives and friends, who also began to be attacked ...

Time has put everything in its place. 30 years later, on December 9, 1989, Boris Pasternak's Nobel Medal was solemnly awarded in Stockholm to his son Eugene.

Mikhail Sholokhov (1905-1984)

Nobel Prize 1965 "For the artistic strength and integrity of the epic about the Don Cossacks at a crucial time for Russia"

Sholokhov should have received his award even earlier. But in 1958, the committee gave preference to Pasternak's candidacy ... And Sholokhov was again forgotten. In 1964, French writer Jean-Paul Sartre refused the Nobel Prize in Literature, stating that, in his opinion, Sholokhov was worthy of the prize. A year later, in 1965, 60-year-old Mikhail Sholokhov received a well-deserved award. Speaking in Stockholm, he said: “Art has a powerful effect on the mind and heart of a person. I think that the artist has the right to be called the one who directs this power to create beauty in the souls of people, for the benefit of humanity. ".

Alexander Solzhenitsyn (1918-2008)

1970 Nobel Prize "For moral strength, gleaned in the tradition of great Russian literature"

Like Pasternak, Solzhenitsyn did not want to give up the coveted Nobel Prize. And in 1970, when the committee informed him about the award, he replied that he would definitely come for it in person. However, this was not destined to happen: the writer was threatened with deprivation of Soviet citizenship - and he did not go to Stockholm. True, he did not regret it at all. Studying the program of the gala evening, Solzhenitsyn sincerely did not understand: "How to talk about the main business of all life at the" banquet table "when the tables are lined with food and everyone is drinking, eating, talking ..."

Joseph Brodsky (1940-1996)

1987 Nobel Prize "For a comprehensive literary activity characterized by clarity of thought and poetic intensity"

“Prix Nobel? Oui, ma belle ", - the poet joked in 1972, long before he received the prize. Unlike his fellow workers - Pasternak and Solzhenitsyn, by the time of world recognition the poet Brodsky had long lived and taught in America, since in the early 1970s he was deprived of Soviet citizenship and expelled from the country ...

They say that the news of the Nobel Prize award practically did not change the expression on his face, because the poet was sure that sooner or later, the Nobel prize would be his. When asked by a journalist who he considers himself to be - Russian or American, Brodsky replied: "I am a Jew, Russian poet and English essayist"... In the same year, the poet's poems were first published in the USSR in the magazine "New World".