The Battle of Moscow (1941-1942) is one of the largest battles of the Second World War, both in terms of the number of participants in the parties and the territory in which it took place. The significance of the battle was enormous, it was on the verge of actual defeat, but thanks to the valor of the soldiers and the commanding talents of the generals, the battle for Moscow was won, and the myth of the invincibility of the German troops was destroyed. Where were the Germans stopped near Moscow? The course of the battle, the strength of the parties, as well as its results and consequences will be discussed further in the article.

Prehistory of the battle

According to the general plan of the German command, codenamed "Barbarossa", Moscow was supposed to be captured three to four months after the start of the war. However, Soviet troops offered heroic resistance. The battle for Smolensk alone delayed the German troops for two months.

The Nazi soldiers approached Moscow only by the end of September, that is, in the fourth month of the war. The operation to seize the capital of the USSR was codenamed "Typhoon", according to which German troops were supposed to cover Moscow from the north and south, then encircle and capture. The Moscow battle took place on a vast territory that stretched over a thousand kilometers.

Forces of the parties. Germany

The German command has deployed a huge force. 77 divisions with a total number of more than 2 million people took part in the battles. In addition, the Wehrmacht had at its disposal more than 1,700 tanks and self-propelled guns, 14 thousand guns and mortars, and about 800 aircraft. The commander of this huge army was Field Marshal F. von Bock.

the USSR

For the VKG Headquarters there were forces of five fronts with a total number of more than 1.25 million people. Also, the Soviet troops had more than 1,000 tanks, 10,000 guns and mortars, and more than 500 aircraft. The defense of Moscow was in turn led by several outstanding strategists: A.M. Vasilevsky, I.S.Konev, G.K. Zhukov.

Course of events

Before finding out where the Germans were stopped near Moscow, it is worth talking a little about the course of hostilities in this battle. It is usually divided into two stages: defensive (which lasted from September 30 to December 4, 1941) and offensive (from December 5, 1941 to April 20, 1942).

Defensive stage

September 30, 1941 is considered the start of the battle for Moscow. On this day, the Nazis attacked the troops of the Bryansk Front.

On October 2, the Germans launched an offensive in the Vyazma direction. Despite stubborn resistance, the German units managed to cut the Soviet troops between the cities of Rzhev and Vyazma, as a result of which the troops of actually two fronts were in the cauldron. In total, more than 600 thousand Soviet soldiers were surrounded.

After the defeat at Bryansk, the defense line by the Soviet command was organized in the Mozhaisk direction. The inhabitants of the city hastily prepared defensive structures: they dug trenches and trenches, and set up anti-tank hedgehogs.

In the course of a rapid offensive, German troops managed to capture cities such as Kaluga, Maloyaroslavets, Kalinin, Mozhaisk from 13 to 18 October and come close to the Soviet capital. On October 20, a state of siege was introduced in Moscow.

Moscow surrounded

Even before the actual introduction of a state of siege in Moscow, on October 15, the Civil Defense Committee was evacuated from the capital to Kuibyshev (modern Samara), the next day the evacuation of all government agencies, the General Staff, etc. began.

JV Stalin decided to stay in the city. On the same day, the residents of the capital were seized by panic, rumors spread about the abandonment of Moscow, several dozen residents of the city tried to urgently leave the capital. Only by October 20 was it possible to establish order. On this day, the city passed into a state of siege.

By the end of October 1941, battles were already underway near Moscow in Naro-Fominsk, Kubinka, Volokolamsk. Moscow was regularly raided by German aircraft, which did not cause much damage, since the most valuable buildings in the capital were carefully camouflaged, and besides, Soviet anti-aircraft gunners worked well. At the cost of huge losses, the October offensive of the German troops was stopped. But they almost reached Moscow.

Where did the Germans manage to get? This sad list includes the suburbs of Tula, Serpukhov, Naro-Fominsk, Kaluga, Kalinin, Mozhaisk.

Parade on Red Square

Taking advantage of the relative silence at the front, the Soviet command decided to hold a military parade on Red Square. The purpose of the parade was to raise the morale of Soviet soldiers. The date was set for November 7, 1941, the parade was hosted by S.M.Budyonny, the parade was commanded by General P.A.Artemiev. The parade was attended by rifle and motorized rifle units, Red Navy men, cavalrymen, as well as artillery and tank regiments. From the parade, the soldiers left almost immediately to the front line, leaving unconquered Moscow behind ...

Where did the Germans go? What cities were they able to get to? How did the Red Army manage to stop the orderly battle formations of the enemy? It's time to find out about it.

The November offensive of the Nazis on the capital

On November 15, after a powerful artillery barrage, a new round of the German offensive near Moscow began. Stubborn battles unfolded in the Volokolamsk and Klin directions. So, in 20 days of the offensive, the Nazis managed to advance 100 km and capture cities such as Klin, Solnechnogorsk, Yakhroma. The closest settlement to Moscow, where the Germans reached during the offensive, was Yasnaya Polyana - the estate of the writer Leo Tolstoy.

The Germans had about 17 km to the borders of Moscow itself, and 29 km to the walls of the Kremlin. By the beginning of December, as a result of a counterattack, Soviet units managed to dislodge the Germans from the previously occupied territories in the vicinity of the capital, including from Yasnaya Polyana.

Today we know where the Germans reached near Moscow - to the very walls of the capital! But they failed to take the city.

The onset of cold weather

As mentioned above, the Barbarossa plan provided for the capture of Moscow by German troops no later than October 1941. In this regard, the German command did not provide for winter uniforms for soldiers. The first night frosts began at the end of October, and for the first time the temperature dropped below zero on November 4. On this day, the thermometer showed -8 degrees. Subsequently, the temperature very rarely dropped below 0 ° C.

For the first cold weather, not only German soldiers dressed in light uniforms were not ready, but also equipment that was not designed to work in subzero temperatures.

The cold weather caught the soldiers when they were actually several tens of kilometers from Belokamennaya, but their equipment did not start in the cold, and the frozen Germans did not want to fight near Moscow. "General Moroz" once again hastened to the rescue of the Russians ...

Where were the Germans stopped near Moscow? The last attempt of the Germans to seize Moscow was made during the offensive on Naro-Fominsk on December 1. In the course of several massive attacks, German units managed for a short time to drive a wedge into the areas of Zvenigorod for 5 km, Naro-Fominsk up to 10 km.

After the transfer of the reserve, the Soviet troops managed to push the enemy back to their original positions. The Naro-Fominsk operation is considered the last one carried out by the Soviet command at the defensive stage of the battle for Moscow.

Results of the defensive stage of the battle for Moscow

The Soviet Union defended its capital at a huge cost. Irrecoverable losses of the Red Army personnel during the defensive stage amounted to more than 500 thousand people. at this stage it lost about 145 thousand people. But in the course of its offensive on Moscow, the German command used virtually all of its free reserves, which by December 1941 were actually depleted, which allowed the Red Army to go on the offensive.

At the end of November, after it became known from intelligence sources that Japan was not with The Far East about 10 divisions and hundreds of tanks were transferred to Moscow. The troops of the Western, Kalinin and Southwestern Fronts were staffed with new divisions, as a result of which, by the beginning of the offensive, the Soviet grouping in the Moscow direction consisted of more than 1.1 million soldiers, 7,700 guns and mortars, 750 tanks, and about 1,000 aircraft.

However, it was opposed by a group of German troops, not inferior, and even superior in number. The number of personnel reached 1.7 million people, tanks and aircraft were 1200 and 650, respectively.

On December 5 and 6, the troops of the three fronts launched a large-scale offensive, and already on December 8 Hitler gave the order for the German troops to go over to the defensive. 1941 Soviet troops liberated Istra and Solnechnogorsk. On December 15 and 16, the cities of Klin and Kalinin were liberated.

For ten days of the offensive of the Red Army, it was possible to push back the enemy in different sectors of the front by 80-100 km, and also to create a threat of collapse of the German front of Army Group Center.

Hitler, not wanting to retreat, removed Generals Brauchitsch and Bock and appointed General H. von Kluge as the new commander of the army. However, the Soviet offensive was developing rapidly, and the German command was unable to stop it. In total, in December 1941, German troops in different sectors of the front were thrown back 100-250 km, which actually meant the elimination of the threat to the capital, the complete defeat of the Germans near Moscow.

In 1942, the Soviet troops slowed down the pace of their advance and failed to actually destroy the front of Army Group Center, although they inflicted an extremely heavy defeat on the German troops.

The outcome of the battle for Moscow

The historical significance of the defeat of the Germans near Moscow is invaluable for the entire Second World War. More than 3 million people, over two thousand aircraft and three thousand tanks, took part in this battle on both sides, and the front stretched for more than 1000 km. For 7 months of the battle, Soviet troops lost more than 900 thousand people killed and missing, German troops lost more than 400 thousand people during the same period. Important results of the battle for Moscow (1941-1942) can be indicated:

• Destroyed the German plan "blitzkrieg" - a quick lightning victory, Germany had to prepare for a long exhausting war.
• The threat of the capture of Moscow ceased to exist.
• The myth of the invincibility of the German army was dispelled.
• The German army suffered serious losses of its advanced and most efficient units, which had to be replenished with inexperienced recruits.
• The Soviet command acquired tremendous experience for successfully waging war with the German army.
• After the victory in the Moscow battle, the anti-Hitler coalition began to take shape.

This is how the defense of Moscow took place, and such significant results were brought by its positive outcome.

Defense of the Caucasus (Battle for the Caucasus) - a major offensive and defensive operation of Soviet troops in the second period of the Great Patriotic War in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.

• From July 25 to December 31, 1942, an offensive was conducted by the Germans, who managed to capture part of the territory;
• From December 31 to October 9, 1943, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, recaptured territories and forced the German troops to retreat.

By the early fall of 1942, German troops were able to conquer most of the Kuban and the North Caucasus, but after the defeat at Stalingrad they were forced to retreat again, as they suffered serious losses and feared that Soviet troops would surround them. In 1943, the Soviet army planned an operation, as a result of which German troops were to be surrounded on the territory of the Kuban and defeated, but the operation failed - the Germans were evacuated to Crimea.

Background and balance of power

By June 1942, the Soviet army was in a weakened state after the failure at Kharkov. The German command, seeing that the Soviet troops could not offer worthy resistance, decided to launch an offensive in the Caucasus, taking advantage of the situation. After a series of battles, German troops were able to conquer several cities, including Rostov-on-Don, which opened the way for Hitler to the Caucasus.

The Caucasus, like Ukraine, was a very important strategic point, which German troops sought to capture as early as possible. The Caucasus and the Kuban contained large reserves of Soviet oil, grain and other crops, which could provide serious support to the German army for further battles on the territory of the USSR. In addition, Hitler hoped that by going to the sea he would be able to turn to Turkey for help. Moreover, the German command also counted on the help of the residents themselves, since they were aware that part of the local population did not accept Soviet power.

After the fall of Rostov-on-Don, the communication of the Soviet command with the Caucasus could be carried out only by sea or by rail, passing through Stalingrad. That is why Stalingrad became an important point that the Germans needed to capture. Despite the fact that Hitler threw enormous forces into the fight at Stalingrad, he was never able to take the city. The Germans lost the Battle of Stalingrad. They suffered significant losses and largely due to this, they later did not manage to conquer the Caucasus.

Defense of the Caucasus

The battle took place in two stages. During the first stage of the German army, it was not without difficulty that they managed to take a number of cities: Stavropol, Armavir, Maikop, Krasnodar, Elista, Mozdok and part of Novorossiysk. In September 1942, the German army approached the Malgobek area, where it was stopped by Soviet troops.

The first stage of the battle for the Caucasus took place from July to December 1942. The German army was able to approach the foothills of the Caucasus Range and the Terek River, but this victory was not easy - Hitler's troops suffered colossal losses. The original plan to seize Transcaucasia was never completed, despite the fact that the Germans were still leading in this operation - the Soviet troops were able to stop the German offensive in time and force the army to stop fighting, since most of the army was simply destroyed. Turkey also failed, which did not dare to enter the war and come to the aid of Hitler.

The German offensive failed largely due to the victory of the Soviet troops at Stalingrad. Hitler, who pinned too high hopes on the capture of this city, simply did not foresee the possibility that the Soviet army could defend Stalingrad and, therefore, one of the routes to the Caucasus.

As a result of numerous losses, by the beginning of 1943 the German army was numerically inferior to the Soviet one by several times.

The second stage of the battle for the Caucasus can be considered a counter-offensive by the Soviet troops, which was extremely successful for the Soviet Union. The territories previously captured by the Germans were recaptured, North Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Rostov Region, Stavropol Territory and other areas were completely liberated.The oil fields and grain were again returned to the control of the Soviet Union, which gave a colossal advantage in the war.

Despite the fact that the Soviet army was able to achieve serious success, it cannot be assumed that the victory definitely belongs to the Soviet Union, since the main goal that Stalin set for his army - to capture and destroy the Germans in the Kuban - was never achieved. The German army fled to the Crimea, however, despite this, the Caucasus again returned under the command of the USSR.

The meaning and results of the battle for the Caucasus

The successes of the Soviet Union in the battle for the Caucasus can be considered one of the most important parts of the general counteroffensive of the USSR in the second period of the war. At this time, the Soviet army not only began to recapture its territories and return captured people, but also greatly increased its combat power and could enter battles with the German army on equal terms. The return to the jurisdiction of the USSR of such an important strategic point as the Caucasus can be considered as one of the greatest victories of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War.

Unfortunately, the battle for the Caucasus also had negative consequences. Part of the population was accused of assisting the enemy, and many of the local residents were later exiled to Siberia.

The victorious march of the Soviet Union in the Second World War began with the victory at Stalingrad and the battle in the Caucasus.

Even Napoleon, during his famous Egyptian campaign, noticed that three local warriors always defeat seven Frenchmen. One hundred local warriors defeat one hundred French, but when the number of the opposing sides increases to a thousand, the victory goes to the French, even if there are two or even three times more Arabs. So the great commander came to the understanding that the best organization and strict discipline, starting from a certain moment, always turn out to be more victorious than the superior number of the enemy, even if he possesses outstanding personal courage, but against the background of the absence of a general organization of the battle and common discipline for all. Observations of Napoleon can be considered the first attempt at scientific analysis of such a phenomenon as the ability to win.

Military scientific thought does not stand still, and the following material confirms this. An article by retired US Army Colonel Norvel de Atkin appeared in The Middle East quarterly. The Colonel spent eight years of his service in the Middle East: in Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates as the American military attaché, security officer, observer officer of the security forces. In all, the Colonel has thirty years of research into the Middle East, embodied in his degree in Arabic at the American University of Beirut. Currently, de Atkin is training the American military, whose service is associated with the Middle East region. Norvel de Atkin expounds his view on the problems of the armies of the Arab countries, the main of which he considers their inability to win in battle. The colonel, in his own way, explains the reasons for this "disadvantage" unacceptable for the army of any state.

“In the modern era, the Arabic-speaking armies have shown their complete ineffectiveness,” the colonel writes. Egyptian regular forces suffered a fiasco in battles against Yemeni rebel forces in the 1960s. The Syrian military was able to impose its will on Lebanon in the mid-1970s only thanks to its absolute superiority in weapons and numbers. The Iraqi army was weaker than the Iranian army, although the latter's combat effectiveness was severely undermined by the revolutionary turmoil of the early 1980s. Also, the Iraqi army was unable to solve its tasks in the war with the Kurds. During the Kuwait war, the Arab armies on either side were unable to show off their military prowess. Is it worth remembering the recurring nightmare of the Arab-Israeli military clashes, which repeatedly showed the absolute inability of the Arab armies to fight with modern weapons?

In the opinion of the retired colonel, among the various reasons for this state of the Arab armies, the reasons for the cultural and social nature that directly go back to the mentality and characteristics of socialization of the Arab soldier stand out. Long-term observations of both the Middle Eastern soldier and the organization of military service in general led the colonel to certain conclusions, which are largely based on the study of how Arabs go into battle and how the mental warehouse affects the combat capability of an Arab.

The colonel draws attention to the difference between the methods of waging wars in the West and in the Arab East. The West is characterized by the conduct of positional warfare, as they say, "face to face." As for the Arab armies of the early Islamic era (when the traditions of waging war were laid), they showed themselves as masters of evasion, delays and deception. This in no way diminishes the courage of the Arab warrior of that time, but only emphasizes his inability to fight “in one bundle.” Historical experience shows that, according to Lawrence of Arabia, “Arabs are more successful in an insurrectionary or political war,” that is, in “ wars without battles ", as they were called by the same Lawrence.

Another feature that undermines the combat capability of the Arab armies is the dominant culture, which has shaped traditional Arab patterns of behavior, expressed in excessive centralization, lack of personal initiative, lack of flexibility, manipulation of information and suppression of leadership inclinations starting from the level of junior officers. Take the military education system, which, due to traditions and mentality, it is based on rote memorization. Memorization, of course, is necessary, but when it becomes the main thing in the educational process, it leads to the degradation of the ability to reason and analyze. If the future officer does try to reason, draw conclusions or make his own decisions, the cultural environment will quickly remind him that such actions will damage his career. Another feature concerns both the educational process and everyday military service, namely: the lack of a competitive spirit, since competition implies the presence of a winner and a loser, and this, sorry, can insult to death the tender soul of an Arab soldier or officer. In other words, it is important for the Arab soldier to maintain the health of his ego and pride, rather than take part in a competition that could show weaknesses in his combat training.

The peculiarities of mentality and the influence of tradition have led to the formulation of a certain teaching code in the relationship between a Western specialist and an Arab student. When dealing with Middle Eastern students, Western instructors should take into account that the question they ask the student has the correct answer, which he received in advance during the course. If the student is required to be smart or cannot answer the question a priori, then the student will feel publicly offended. It is especially noted that in the conditions of a paranoid cultural environment, "shifted" to the inviolability of His Majesty the Ego, such a student will see a malicious attitude in the teacher's question. Therefore, such a teacher will become an enemy for the student. In turn, the unfortunate cadet's classmates will become afraid that they will also be selected as objects for insult by the teacher. As a result, learning becomes impossible altogether.

Of course, it is probably very important that the outstanding ego and pride of a military school cadet is not harmed in the course of training. It is probably very important that the graduate feels important and important, that he has made a big step up the social ladder. However, in battle, all its importance will not be worth a penny in the absence of the ability to independently analyze the operational situation and make personal decisions. I wonder if the Arabs will ever understand this?

The winner is not the army in which the sergeant refers to the higher authorities, but the army whose sergeant gives orders as if he himself had developed them and accepted them at the council of war. The army that wins is the army whose soldiers and officers have gone through the course of "eliminating" the sense of their own importance, and therefore they do not hesitate to fall face down in the mud, bite into the ground and give their lives to complete a combat mission.

The Arabs call their homeland Arabia - Jazirat al-Arab, that is, the "Island of the Arabs".

Indeed, from the west the Arabian Peninsula is washed by the waters of the Red Sea, from the south - by the Gulf of Aden, from the east - by the Oman and Persian Gulfs. To the north lies the rugged Syrian Desert. Naturally, with such a geographical position, the ancient Arabs felt isolated, that is, "living on an island."

Speaking about the origin of the Arabs, they usually single out the historical and ethnographic areas that have their own characteristics. The allocation of these areas is based on the specifics of socio-economic, cultural and ethnic development. The cradle of the Arab world is considered to be the Arabian historical and ethnographic region, the borders of which do not at all coincide with the modern states of the Arabian Peninsula. This includes, for example, the eastern regions of Syria and Jordan. The second historical and ethnographic zone (or region) includes the rest of Syria, Jordan, as well as Lebanon and Palestine. Iraq is considered a separate historical and ethnographic zone. Egypt, North Sudan and Libya are united in one zone. And finally, the Maghreb-Mauritanian zone, which includes the Maghreb countries - Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, as well as Mauritania and Western Sahara. This division is by no means universally recognized, for border areas, as a rule, have features that are characteristic of both neighboring zones.

Economic activity

The agricultural culture of Arabia developed quite early, although only some parts of the peninsula were suitable for land use. These are primarily those territories on which the state of Yemen is now located, as well as some parts of the coast and oases. Petersburg orientalist O. Bolshakov believes that "in terms of the intensity of agriculture, Yemen can be put on a par with such ancient civilizations as Mesopotamia and Egypt." The physical and geographical conditions of Arabia predetermined the division of the population into two groups - sedentary farmers and nomadic pastoralists. There was no clear division of the inhabitants of Arabia into sedentary and nomads, because there were various types of mixed economy, relations between which were maintained not only through commodity exchange, but also through family ties.

In the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. the herders of the Syrian desert had a domesticated dromedary camel (dromedar). The number of camels was still small, but this already allowed some of the tribes to move on to a truly nomadic life. This circumstance forced herders to lead a more mobile lifestyle and make many kilometers of crossings to remote areas, for example, from Syria to Mesopotamia, directly through the desert.

The first state formations

Several states arose on the territory of modern Yemen, which in the IV century A.D. were united by one of them - the Himyarite kingdom. For the South Arabian society of antiquity, the same features are characteristic that are inherent in other societies of the Ancient East: a slave-owning system arose here, on which the wealth of the ruling class was based. The state carried out construction and repair of large irrigation systems, without which it was impossible to develop agriculture. The population of the cities was mainly represented by artisans who skillfully produced high-quality products, including agricultural implements, weapons, household utensils, leather goods, fabrics, and ornaments from sea shells. In Yemen, gold was mined, and aromatic resins, including frankincense and myrrh, were collected. Later, the interest of Christians in this product constantly stimulated transit trade, due to which the exchange of goods between the Arabian Arabs and the population of the Christian regions of the Middle East expanded.

With the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom at the end of the 6th century by Sassanian Iran, horses appeared in Arabia. It was during this period that the state fell into decay, which affected primarily the urban population.

As for the nomads, such collisions hurt them to a lesser extent. The life of the nomads was determined by the tribal structure, where there were dominant and subordinate tribes. Within the tribe, relations were regulated depending on the degree of kinship. The material existence of the tribe depended exclusively on the harvest in the oases, where there were cultivated plots of land and wells, as well as on the offspring of herds. The main factor influencing the patriarchal life of the nomads, in addition to the attacks of unfriendly tribes, were natural disasters - drought, epidemics and earthquakes, which are mentioned in Arab legends.

The nomads of central and northern Arabia have long been engaged in raising sheep, cattle and camels. It is characteristic that the nomadic world of Arabia was surrounded by economically more developed regions, so there is no need to talk about the cultural isolation of Arabia. In particular, this is evidenced by the excavation data. For example, in the construction of dams and reservoirs, the inhabitants of southern Arabia used a cement slurry that was invented in Syria around 1200 BC. The presence of ties that existed between the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast and southern Arabia as early as the 10th century BC confirms the story of the trip of the ruler of Saba ("Queen of Sheba") to King Solomon.

Semitic advance from Arabia

Around the 3rd millennium BC. Arabian Semites began to settle in Mesopotamia and Syria. Already from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. began intensive movement of Arabs outside the "Jazirat al-Arab". However, those Arabian tribes that appeared in Mesopotamia in the III-II millennia BC were soon assimilated by the Akkadians who lived there. Later, in the XIII century BC, a new advance of the Semitic tribes, who spoke Aramaic dialects, began. Already in the VII-VI centuries BC. Aramaic becomes the spoken language of Syria, displacing Akkadian.

ancient arabians

By the beginning of the new era, significant numbers of Arabs had moved to Mesopotamia, settled in southern Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula. Some tribes even managed to create state formations. Thus, the Nabateans founded their kingdom on the border of Arabia and Palestine, which lasted until the II century AD. Along the lower reaches of the Euphrates, the Lakhmid state arose, but its rulers were forced to recognize their vassal dependence on the Persian Sassanids. The Arabs, who settled in Syria, Trans-Jordan and southern Palestine, united in the 6th century under the rule of representatives of the Ghassanid tribe. They also had to recognize themselves as vassals of a stronger Byzantium. It is characteristic that both the Lakhmid state (in 602) and the Ghassanid state (in 582) were destroyed by their own suzerains, who feared the strengthening and growing independence of their vassals. Nevertheless, the presence of Arab tribes in the Syrian-Palestinian region was a factor that subsequently contributed to softening a new, more massive Arab invasion. Then they began to penetrate into Egypt. Thus, the city of Koptos in Upper Egypt, even before the Muslim conquest, was half-populated by Arabs.

Naturally, the newcomers quickly adopted local customs. The caravan trade allowed them to maintain ties with kindred tribes and clans within the Arabian Peninsula, which gradually contributed to the convergence of urban and nomadic cultures.

Prerequisites for the unification of the Arabs

In the tribes living on the borders of Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, the process of decomposition of primitive communal relations developed faster than among the population of the interior regions of Arabia. In the 5th-7th centuries, the underdevelopment of the internal organization of the tribes was observed, which, in combination with the remnants of the maternal account and polyandry, indicated that, due to the specifics of the nomadic economy, the decomposition of the tribal system in Central and North Arabia developed more slowly than in the neighboring regions of Western Asia.

Periodically, related tribes united into unions. Sometimes tribes were split up or absorbed by powerful tribes. Over time, it became apparent that large formations are more viable. It was in tribal unions or confederations of tribes that the prerequisites for the emergence of a class society began to take shape. The process of its formation was accompanied by the creation of primitive state formations. Even in the II-VI centuries, large tribal unions began to form (Mazhij, Kinda, Maad, etc.), but none of them could become the core of a single all-Arab state. A prerequisite for the political unification of Arabia was the desire of the tribal elite to secure the right to land, livestock and income from the caravan trade. An additional factor was the need to combine efforts to resist external expansion. As we have already indicated, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, the Persians captured Yemen and liquidated the Lakhmid state, which was in vassal dependence. As a result, in the south and north, Arabia was threatened with being absorbed by the Persian power. Naturally, the situation had a negative impact on Arabian trade. The merchants of a number of Arabian cities suffered significant material damage. The only way out of this situation could be the unification of related tribes.

The center for the unification of the Arabs was the Hejaz region, located in the west of the Arabian Peninsula. This area has long been famous for its relatively developed agriculture, crafts, but most importantly - trade. The local cities - Mecca, Yasrib (later Medina), Taif - had strong contacts with the neighboring tribes of nomads who visited them, exchanging their goods for the products of urban artisans.

However, the unification of the Arabian tribes was hampered by the religious situation. The ancient Arabs were pagans. Each tribe revered its patron god, although some of them can be considered common Arab - Allah, al-Uzza, al-Lat. Even in the first centuries in Arabia, it was known about Judaism and Christianity. Moreover, in Yemen, these two religions have practically supplanted pagan cults. On the eve of the Persian conquest, the Yemeni-Jews fought with the Yemeni-Christians, while the Jews focused on Sassanian Persia (which later facilitated the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom by the Persians), and the Christians - on Byzantium. In these conditions, a form of Arabian monotheism arose, which (especially at an early stage) to a large extent, but in a peculiar way, reflected some of the postulates of Judaism and Christianity. Its adherents - the Hanifs - became the bearers of the idea of \u200b\u200ba single god. In turn, this form of monotheism paved the way for the rise of Islam.

The religious beliefs of the Arabs of the pre-Islamic period are a conglomerate of various beliefs, among which were female and male deities, and the veneration of stones, springs, trees, various spirits, jinn and shaitans, who were intermediaries between people and gods, was also widespread. Naturally, the absence of clear dogmatic ideas opened up wide opportunities for penetration into this amorphous worldview of the ideas of more developed religions, and contributed to religious and philosophical reflections.

By that time, writing became more and more widespread, which later played a huge role in the formation of medieval Arab culture, and at the stage of the emergence of Islam contributed to the accumulation and transmission of information. The need for this was colossal, as evidenced by the practice of oral memorization and reproduction of ancient genealogies, historical chronicles, and poetic narratives, widespread among the Arabs.

As noted by the St. Petersburg scientist A. Khalidov, "most likely, the language was formed as a result of a long development based on the selection of heterogeneous forms and their artistic understanding." In the end, it was the use of the same language of poetry that became one of the most important factors contributing to the formation of the Arab community. Naturally, the process of mastering the Arabic language did not take place simultaneously. This process took place most rapidly in those areas where the inhabitants spoke the related languages \u200b\u200bof the Semitic group. In other regions, this process took several centuries, but a number of peoples, having found themselves under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, managed to maintain their linguistic independence.

Arab caliphs

Abu Bakr and Omar

Omar ibn Khattab

Caliph Ali

Harun ar Rashid

Abd ar Rahman I

Arab Caliphate

The Arab Caliphate is a theocratic state headed by a Caliph. The core of the Caliphate arose on the Arabian Peninsula after the emergence of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century. It was formed as a result of military campaigns in the middle of the 7th - early 9th centuries. and the conquest (with the subsequent Islamization) of the peoples of the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and South-Western Europe.

Abbasids, second great dynasty of Arab caliphs

Conquest of the Caliphate

Trade in the Caliphate

Arab dirhams

• In room 6 c. Arabia lost a number of territories - trade was disrupted.

• Unification became necessary.

• The unification of the Arabs was helped by the new religion of Islam.

• Its founder, Mohammed, was born around 570 in a poor family. He married his former mistress and became a merchant.

Islam

The science

Arab army

Applied arts

Bedouin

Bedouin tribes: At the head - the leader The custom of blood feud Military clashes over pastures At the end of the VI century. - Arab trade was disrupted.

Arabs' conquests –VII – BC VIII century A huge Arab state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the capital of Damascus.

The heyday of the Baghdad Caliphate - the years of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (768-809).

In 732, as the chroniclers testified, the 400,000-strong Arab army crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. Later studies lead to the conclusion that the Arabs could have had from 30 to 50 thousand soldiers.

Not without the help of the Aquitaine and Burgundian nobility, who opposed the process of centralization in the kingdom of the Franks, the Arab army of Abd-el-Rahman moved through Western Gaul, reached the center of Aquitaine, occupied Poitiers and headed for Tours. Here, on the old Roman road, at the crossing of the Vienne River, the Arabs were met by a 30,000-strong army of Franks, led by the Carolingian Majord Pepin Charles, who was the de facto ruler of the Frankish state since 715.

Even at the beginning of his reign, the Frankish state consisted of three long-isolated parts: Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy. Royal power was purely nominal. The enemies of the Franks were not slow to take advantage of this. The Saxons invaded the Rhine regions, the Avars invaded Bavaria, and the Arab conquerors moved through the Pyrenees to the Laura River.

Karl had to blaze his way to power with weapons in hand. After the death of his father in 714, he and his stepmother Plectruda were thrown into prison, from where he was able to escape the following year. By that time he was already a well-known military leader of the Franks of Austrasia, where he was popular among free peasants and middle landowners. They became his main support in the internecine struggle for power in the Frankish state.

Having established himself in Australasia, Karl Pepin began to strengthen the position in the lands of the Franks by force of arms and diplomacy. After a fierce confrontation with his opponents in 715, he became major of the Frankish state and ruled it on behalf of the young king Theodoric IV. Having established himself at the royal throne, Charles began a series of military campaigns outside Australasia.

Charles, having gained the upper hand in the battles over the feudal lords who were trying to challenge his supreme power, in 719 won a brilliant victory over the Neustrians, led by one of his opponents, Major Ragenfried, whose ally was the ruler of Aquitaine, Count Ed. At the battle of Sausson, the Frankish ruler put the enemy army to flight. By handing over Ragenfried, Count Ed managed to conclude a temporary peace with Charles. The Franks soon occupied the cities of Paris and Orleans.

Then Karl remembered about his sworn enemy - his stepmother Plectrude, who had her own large army. Having started a war with her, Charles forced his stepmother to surrender to him the rich and well-fortified city of Cologne on the banks of the Rhine.

In 725 and 728, Major Karl Pepin made two large military campaigns against the Bavarians and eventually subdued them. Then came the campaigns to Alemannia and Aquitaine, to Thuringia and Frisia ...

Before the battle of Poitiers, the infantry, consisting of free peasants, remained the basis of the combat power of the Frankish army. At that time, all men in the kingdom capable of carrying weapons were liable for military service.

Organizationally, the army of the Franks was divided into hundreds, or, in other words, into such a number of peasant households that could put a hundred foot soldiers into the militia in wartime. Peasant communities themselves regulated military conscription. Each Frankish warrior was armed and equipped at his own expense. The quality of the weapon was checked at reviews held by the king or, on his behalf, the military leaders-counts. If a warrior's weapon was in an unsatisfactory condition, then he was punished. There is a known case when the king killed a warrior during one of these reviews for the poor maintenance of personal weapons.

The Franks' national weapon was the Francisca, a poleaxe with one or two blades, to which a rope was tied. The Franks deftly threw axes at the enemy at close range. For close hand-to-hand combat, they used swords. In addition to the Francis and swords, the Franks were also armed with short spears - Angons with teeth on a long and sharp tip. The Angon teeth had the opposite direction and therefore it was very difficult to remove it from the wound. In battle, the warrior first threw the angon, which pierced the enemy's shield, and then stepped on the spear shaft and thereby pulled off the shield and struck the enemy with a heavy sword. Many warriors had bows and arrows, which were sometimes soaked in poison.

The only defensive weaponry of the Frankish warrior in the time of Karl Pepin was a round or oval shield. Only wealthy warriors had helmets and chain mail, since metal products cost a lot of money. Part of the armament of the Frankish army was war booty.

In European history, the Frankish general Karl Pepin became famous primarily for successful wars against the Arab conquerors, for which he received the nickname "Martell", which means "hammer".

In 720 the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded what is now France. The Arab army took the well-fortified Narbonne by attack and laid siege to the large city of Toulouse. Count Ed was defeated, and he had to seek refuge in Austrasia with the remnants of his army.

Very soon, the Arab cavalry appeared in the fields of Septimania and Burgundy and even reached the left bank of the Rhone River, entering the lands of the Franks. Thus, in the fields of Western Europe, for the first time, a major clash between the Muslim and Christian worlds ripened. Arab generals, crossing the Pyrenees, had great plans of conquest in Europe.

We must pay tribute to Karl - he immediately understood the full danger of an Arab invasion. After all, the Arabs-Moors by that time managed to conquer almost all Spanish regions. Their troops were constantly replenished with new forces coming through the Strait of Gibraltar from the Maghreb - North Africa, from the territory of modern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Arab generals were famous for their martial arts, and their warriors were excellent riders and archers. The Arab army was partially manned by North African nomad Berbers, for which the Arabs were called Moors in Spain.

Karl Pepin, interrupting the military campaign in the upper Danube, in 732 gathered a large militia of the Austrasians, Neustrians and the Rhine tribes. By that time, the Arabs had already plundered the city of Bordeaux, captured the fortified city of Poitiers and moved towards Tours.

The Frankish commander decisively moved to meet the Arab army, trying to forestall its appearance in front of the fortress walls of Tour. He already knew that the Arabs were commanded by the experienced Abd al-Rahman and that his army was much superior to the Franks' militia, which, according to the same European chroniclers, numbered only 30 thousand soldiers.

At the point where the old Roman road crossed the Vienne River, across which a bridge was built, the Franks and their allies blocked the Arab army's path to Tours. Nearby was the city of Poitiers, after which the battle was named, which took place on October 4, 732 and lasted several days: according to Arab chronicles - two, according to Christian - seven days.

Knowing that light cavalry and many archers predominate in the enemy's army, Major Karl Pepin decided to give the Arabs, who adhered to active offensive tactics in the fields of Europe, a defensive battle. Moreover, the hilly terrain impeded the action of large masses of cavalry. The Frankish army was built for the battle between the Maple and Vienne rivers, which well covered its flanks with their banks. The basis of the battle formation was the infantry, built by a dense phalanx. On the flanks were the cavalry, heavily armed in a knightly manner. The right flank was commanded by Count Ed.

Usually the Franks for battle lined up in dense battle formations, a kind of phalanx, but without proper support of the flanks and rear, trying to solve everything with one blow, a general breakthrough or a swift attack. They, like the Arabs, had a well-developed mutual assistance based on family ties.

Approaching the Vienne River, the Arab army, without getting involved immediately in the battle, set up its marching camp not far from the Franks. Abd-el-Rahman immediately realized that the enemy was in a very strong position and it was impossible to cover him with light cavalry from the flanks. For several days the Arabs did not dare to attack the enemy, waiting for an opportunity to strike. Karl Pepin did not move, patiently awaiting an enemy attack.

In the end, the Arab leader decided to start a battle and built his army in a battle, dismembered order. It consisted of battle lines familiar to the Arabs: horse archers composed "Morning of the Barking of the Dog", followed by "Day of Help", "Evening of Shock", "Al-Ansari" and "Al-Mugajeri". The Arab reserve, intended to develop victory, was under the personal command of Abd al-Rahman and was called the "Banner of the Prophet."

The Battle of Poitiers began with the shelling of the Frankish phalanx by Arab horse archers, to whom the enemy responded by firing crossbows and large bows. After that, the Arab cavalry attacked the positions of the Franks. The Frankish infantry successfully repelled attack after attack, the light enemy cavalry could not breach their dense formation.

A Spanish chronicler, a contemporary of the Battle of Poitiers, wrote that the Franks "stood closely together, as far as the eye could see, like a motionless and icy wall, and fiercely fought, striking the Arabs with swords."

After the infantry of the Franks repelled all the attacks of the Arabs, who, line by line, in some frustration, were rolling back to their original positions, Karl Pepin immediately ordered the knightly cavalry, which was standing idle so far, to launch a counterattack in the direction of the enemy marching camp located behind the right flank of the combat formation of the Arab army ...

Meanwhile, the Frankish knights, led by Ed of Aquitaine, delivered two ramming attacks from the flanks, overturning the opposing light cavalry, rushed to the Arab marching camp and took possession of it. The Arabs, demoralized by the news of the death of their leader, could not hold back the onslaught of the enemy and fled from the battlefield. The Franks pursued them and inflicted considerable damage. This ended the battle near Poitiers.

This battle had extremely important consequences. The victory of Majordom Karl Pepin put an end to the further advancement of the Arabs in Europe. After the defeat at Poitiers, the Arab army, covered by detachments of light cavalry, left French territory and went through the mountains to Spain without further combat losses.

But before the Arabs finally left the south of modern France, Karl Pepin inflicted another defeat on the Berr River south of the city of Narbonne. True, this battle was not decisive.

The victory over the Arabs glorified the Franks' commander. Since then, it has been called Karl Martell (that is, the war hammer).

Usually little is said about this, but the battle of Poitiers is also known for the fact that it was one of the first, when numerous heavy knightly cavalry entered the battlefield. It was she who, with her blow, ensured the Franks a complete victory over the Arabs. Now not only the riders, but also the horses were covered with metal armor.

After the Battle of Poitiers, Karl Martell won several more major victories, conquering Burgundy and regions in the south of France, up to Marseille.

Karl Martell significantly strengthened the military power of the Frankish kingdom. However, he stood only at the origins of the true historical greatness of the Frankish state, which will be created by his grandson Charlemagne, who reached the highest power and became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

Arab army

Army of the Hamdanids X - XI centuries

Late Fatimid army (11th century)

Army of Ghaznavids (end of X - beginning of XI centuries): Ghaznavid palace guard. Karakhanid equestrian warrior in a ceremonial costume. Indian mounted mercenary.

Ancient arabia

Petra city

Genie Cistern in Petra with a hole at the bottom

Snake Monument in Petra

Obelisk (above) next to the altar (below), Petra

Nabatean sundial from Hegra (Museum of Ancient Orient, Istanbul Archaeological Museum

Caliphate literature

Thousand and One Nights

Islamic writing

Applied arts of the Arabs

Bronze candlestick with silver inlay. 1238. Master Daud ibn Salam from Mosul. Museum of Decorative Arts. Paris.

Glass vessel with enamel painting. Syria. 1300. British Museum. London.

Dish with luster painting. Egypt. 11th century Museum of Islamic Art. Cairo.

A sculptural ceiling in the Khirbet al-Mafjar castle. 8 c. Jordan

A jug with the name of Caliph al-Aziz Billah. Rhinestone. 10 c. Treasury of San Marco. Venice.

Arabic architecture

Architecture at Almoravids and Almohads

The Almohad Tower and the Renaissance Bell Section merge into one harmonious whole in La Giralda Bell Tower, Seville

Almoravids invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa in 1086 and united the typhoons under their rule. They developed their own architecture, but very few examples survived, due to the next invasion, now of the Almohads, who imposed Islamic ultra-orthodoxy and destroyed almost every significant Almoravid building, including Madina al-Zahra and other structures of the Caliphate. Their art was extremely strict and simple, and they used brick as their main building material. Literally their only external decoration, "sebka", is based in a net of rhombuses. The Almohads also used palm-patterned ornaments, but they were nothing more than a simplification of the much more lush Almoravid palms. As time went on, art became a little more decorative. The most famous example of Almohad architecture is the Giralda, the former minaret of the Seville mosque. It belongs to the Mudejar style, but this style is absorbed here by the aesthetics of the Almohads, the synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo is a rare example of the architectural collaboration of the three cultures of medieval Spain.

Umayyad dynasty

Dome of the Rock

Umayyad Great Mosque, Syria, Damascus (705-712)

Mosque Tunis XIII century.

Arab invasion of Byzantium

Arab-Byzantine Wars

the entire period of the Arab-Byzantine wars can be divided (approximately) into 3 parts:
I. Weakening of Byzantium, the offensive of the Arabs (634-717)
II. Period of relative calm (718 - mid. IX century)
III. Counteroffensive of Byzantium (end of IX century - 1069)

Main events:

634-639 - Arab conquest of Syria and Palestine with Jerusalem;
639-642 - Amr ibn al-As's campaign to Egypt. The Arabs conquered this highly populated and fertile country;
647-648 - Construction of the Arab fleet. The capture of Tripolitania and Cyprus by the Arabs;
684-678 - First Arab siege of Constantinople. It ended unsuccessfully;
698 - capture of the African Exarchate (belonging to Byzantium) by the Arabs;
717-718 - Second siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. It ended unsuccessfully. Arab expansion in Asia Minor was halted;
IX-X centuries - the Arabs capture the southern Italian territories of Byzantium (the island of Sicily);
X century - Byzantium launched a counteroffensive and conquered part of Syria from the Arabs, and in particular such an important outpost as Antioch. The Byzantine army in those days even put Jerusalem in immediate danger. The Arab Sultanate of Aleppo recognized itself as a vassal of Byzantium. At that time, Crete and Cyprus were also conquered.

The heyday of the Baghdad Caliphate under Harun al-Rashid

Arab culture

Baghdad Caliphate

Baghdad architecture

In Baghdad, there was a kind of intellectual center of the Islamic Golden Age - the House of Wisdom. It included a huge library and employed a huge number of translators and copyists. The best scientists of their time gathered in the House. thanks to the accumulated works of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Euclid, Galen, research was carried out in the humanities, Islam, astronomy and mathematics, medicine and chemistry, alchemy, zoology and geography.
This greatest treasury of the finest works of antiquity and modernity was destroyed in 1258. It, along with other libraries in Baghdad, was destroyed by Mongol troops after the capture of the city. The books were thrown into the river, and the water remained stained with their ink for many months ...
Almost everyone has heard of the burned down library of Alexandria, but for some reason few people remember the lost House of Wisdom ...

Fortress Tower Talisman in Baghdad.

Necropolis Shahi-Zinda

The appearance of the Shahi-Zindan memorial on the slope of the Afrasiab hill is associated with the name of Kusam ibn Abbas, a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he participated in the first Arab campaigns in Maverannahr. According to legend, Kusam was mortally wounded at the walls of Samarkand and took refuge underground, where he continues to live. Hence the name of the memorial is Shahi-Zindan, which means "The Living King". By the X-XI centuries. the martyr of the faith Kusam ibn Abbas acquired the status of an Islamic saint, the patron saint of Samarkand, and in the XII-XV centuries. Along the path leading to his mausoleums and memorial mosques, with their refinement and beauty, they seem to deny death.

On the northern outskirts of Samarkand, on the edge of the Afrasiab hill, among the vast ancient cemetery, there are groups of mausoleums, among which the most famous is the grave attributed to Kussam, the son of Abbas, a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. According to Arab sources, Kussam came to Samarkand in 676. According to some sources, he was killed, according to others, he died a natural death; according to some sources, he died not even in Samarkand, but in Merv. The imaginary or actual grave of Kussam with his relatives the Abbasids (VIII century), perhaps not without their participation, became the subject of the Muslim cult. Among the people, Kussam became known under the name Shah-i Zinda - "The Living King". According to legend, Kussam left the earthly world alive and continues to live in the “next world”. Hence the nickname "The Living King".

Mausoleum of Zimurrud Khatun in Baghdad

Conquest of Spain

At the end of the 7th century A.D. after long wars, the Arabs expelled the Byzantines from North Africa. Once the land of Africa was a battlefield between Rome and Carthage, it gave the world such great commanders as Jugurtha and Masinissa, and now, though with difficulty, it has passed into the hands of Muslims. After this conquest, the Arabs set out to conquer Spain.

It was not only the love of conquest and the dream of expanding the Islamic State that pushed them to this. The local inhabitants of North Africa - the Berber tribes - were very brave, warlike, violent and temperamental. The Arabs feared that after some time of calm, the Berbers would set out to avenge their defeats, raise an uprising and then the Arabs would miss the victory. Therefore, the Arabs, having aroused interest among the Berbers in the conquest of Spain, wanted to distract them from this and extinguish their thirst for bloodshed and revenge by war. As Ibn Khaldun notes, it is not surprising that the Muslim army, which was the first to cross the Jabalitarik Strait and entered Spanish soil, could be said to be entirely composed of Berbers.

It is known from ancient history that the main inhabitants of Spain were the Celts, Iberians and Ligors. The peninsula was divided into territories that once belonged to Phenicia, Carthage and Rome. After the conquest of Spain, the Carthaginians built the majestic city of Carthage here. Around 200 BC. in the Punic Wars, Rome defeated Carthage, took possession of these fertile lands, and until the century AD. ruled over these lands. At this time, from Spain, which was considered the most important and flourishing place of the empire, such great thinkers as Seneca, Lucan, Martial and such famous emperors as Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Theodosius came out.

Just as the prosperity of Rome created the conditions for the progress of Spain, so the fall of this city led to the decline of Spain. The peninsula has once again become a battlefield. At the beginning of the century, the tribes of the Vandals, Alans and Suevi who destroyed Rome and France, also devastated Spain. However, the tribes of the Goths soon drove them out of the peninsula and took possession of Spain. From YOU century until the Arab attack, the Goths were the dominant power in Spain.

Soon, the Goths mixed with the local population - the Latin peoples, and adopted the Latin language and Christianity. It is known that until the 19th century, the Goths predominated among the Christian population of Spain. When the Arabs drove them towards the Asturian mountains, the Goths, thanks to mixing with the local population, were able to retain their dominance again. So, for example, among the Christian population of Spain it was considered pride to be a descendant of the Goths and to bear the nickname "the son of the ready".

Earlier, before the conquest of the Arabs, the nobility of the Goths and Latin peoples united and created an aristocratic government. This association, engaged in the oppression of the oppressed masses, has acquired the hatred of the people. And naturally, this state, built on money and wealth, could not be strong and could not adequately defend against the enemy.

Also, the appointment of a ruler by elective means led to eternal strife and enmity for power between the nobility. This feud and wars eventually precipitated the weakening of the Gothic state.

General strife, internal wars, people's dissatisfaction with the local government and, for this reason, a weak resistance to the Arabs, a lack of loyalty and a spirit of self-sacrifice in the army, and other reasons ensured an easy victory for the Muslims. It even came to the point that, due to the above reasons, the Andalusian ruler Julian and the Bishop of Seville were not afraid to help the Arabs.

In 711, Musa ibn Nasir, who was the governor of North Africa during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Walid ibn Abdulmelik, sent a 12,000 army, formed from Berbers, to conquer Spain. The army was led by the Muslim Berber Tarig ibn Ziyad. The Muslims crossed the Jabalut-tarig Strait, which got its name from this famous commander Tariq, and entered the Iberian Peninsula. The wealth of this land, its clean air, amazing nature and its mysterious cities so amazed the army of the conquerors that in a letter to the Caliph Tarig wrote: India, in terms of fertility and abundance of crops, is similar to China, in terms of access to ports, they are similar to Aden.
The Arabs, who spent half a century conquering the coastal strip of North Africa and met fierce resistance from the Berbers, expected to face a similar situation during the conquest of Spain. However, contrary to expectations, Spain was conquered in a short time, in just a few months. The Muslims defeated the Goths at the very first battle. In this battle, they were assisted by the Bishop of Seville. As a result, breaking the resistance of the Goths, the coastal zone passed into the hands of Muslims.

Seeing the success of Tarig ibn Ziyad, Mussa ibn Nasir gathered an army of 12 thousand Arabs and 8 thousand Berbers and went to Spain in order to be a partner in the success.

Throughout its journey, the Muslim army, one might say, did not meet a single serious resistance. The people dissatisfied with the government and the nobility torn by strife voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and even sometimes joined them. Such major cities of Spain as Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Toledo surrendered without resistance. In the city of Toledo, which was the capital, 25 valuable crowns of Gothic rulers, adorned with various precious stones, fell into the hands of Muslims. The wife of the Gothic king Rodrigue was captured and the son of Musa ibn Nasir married her.

In the eyes of the Arabs, the Spaniards were on a par with the people of Syria and Egypt. The laws observed in the conquered countries were also enforced here. The conquerors did not touch the property and temples of the local population, local customs and orders remained the same as before. The Spaniards were allowed to address controversial issues to their judges, to obey the decisions of their own courts. In return for all this, the population was obliged to pay a meager tax (jizya) for those times. The amount of tax for the nobility and the rich was set at the limit of one dinar (15 francs), and half a dinar for the poor. That is why the poor, driven to despair from the oppression of local rulers and countless quitrent taxes, voluntarily surrendered to the Muslims, and even having converted to Islam, were exempted from taxes. Despite the fact that in some places there were isolated cases of resistance, they were quickly suppressed.

As historians write, after the conquest of Spain, Musa ibn Nasir intended to reach Constantinople (present-day Istanbul; at that time Constantinople was the capital of the great Byzantine Empire), passing through France and Germany. However, the Caliph summoned him to Damascus and the plan remained unfinished. If Moussa could carry out his intention, could conquer Europe, then at present the divided peoples would be under the flag of a single religion. Along with this, Europe could avoid medieval darkness and medieval, terrible tragedies.

Everyone knows that when Europe groaned in the claws of ignorance, fratricide, epidemics, senseless crusades, the Inquisition, Spain under the rule of the Arabs flourished, lived a comfortable life and was at the peak of its development. Spain shone in the darkness. In Spain, excellent conditions were created for the development of science, culture, and this it owes to Islam.

In order to determine the role of Arabs in the political, economic and cultural life of Spain, it would be more expedient to consider the ratio of their total number.

As mentioned above, the first Muslim army that entered the Iberian Peninsula consisted of Arabs and
berbers. Subsequent military units consisted of representatives of the Syrian population. It is known from history that in the early Middle Ages in Spain, the leadership of science and culture belonged to the Arabs, and the Berbers were subordinate to them. The Arabs were considered the highest stratum of the population (ashraf), while the Berbers and the local population were considered a secondary and tertiary stratum of the population. Interestingly, even when the Berber dynasties were able to gain power in Spain, the Arabs managed to maintain their rule.

As for the total number of Arabs, there is no exact data on this matter. We can only assume that after the Cordoba Emirate separated from the Arab Emirate, the Arabs were isolated from the rest of the countries. However, due to the rapid growth and emigration from North Africa, the Berbers increased in number and gained a dominance in power.
Muslims mingled with the local Christian population of Spain. According to historians, in the very first years of the conquest of Spain, the Arabs married 30 thousand Christian women and brought them into their harem (the harem in the civilian fortress, nicknamed the "girls' room", is a historical monument). In addition, at the beginning of the conquest, some of the nobility, in order to show their devotion to the Arabs, annually sent 100 Christian girls to the Caliph's palace. Among the women with whom the Arabs married were girls from the Latin, Iberian, Greek, Gothic and other tribes. It is clear that as a result of such a massive mixing, a new generation arose after several decades, radically different from the conquerors of the 700s.

From 711 (the date of the conquest of Spain) to 756, this area was subject to the Umayyad Caliphate. An emir appointed by the Umayyad caliph ruled over this territory. In 756, Spain separated from the Caliphate and became independent. It began to be called the Cordoba Caliphate, whose capital was the city of Cordoba.

After 300 years of Arab rule in Spain, their glorious and glorious star began to fade. The strife that engulfed the Cordoba Caliphate shook the power of the state. At this time, Christians living in the north took advantage of this opportunity and began to attack in order to take revenge.

The struggle of Christians for the return of the lands conquered by the Arabs (in Spanish: reconquista) intensified in the 10th century. In the Asturian region, where Christians expelled from the Spanish lands were concentrated, the Kingdom of Lyons and Castile arose. In the middle of the 11th century, these two kingdoms united. At the same time, the Navarre, Catalan and Aragonese states, united, created a new Aragonese kingdom. At the end of the 11th century, a Portuguese county arose in the west of the Iberian Peninsula. Soon this county also became a kingdom. Thus, at the end of the 10th century, serious Christian rivals of the Cordoba Caliphate began to appear on the Spanish map.

In 1085, as a result of a powerful attack, the northerners captured the city of Toledo. The leader of the northerners was the king of Castile and Leon, Alphonse VI. The Spanish Muslims, seeing that they could not resist on their own, asked for help from the Berbers of North Africa. The al-Murabit dynasty, entrenched in Tunisia and Morocco, entered Spain, and tried to resurrect the Cordoba Caliphate. Al-Murabits defeated Alfonso VI in 1086, and temporarily were able to stop the movement of the reconquista. Only half a century later, they lost to a new dynasty that entered the political arena - al-Muwahids. Having seized power in North Africa, the al-Muwahids attacked Spain and subjugated the Muslim regions. However, this state failed to provide adequate resistance to Christians. Despite the fact that they decorated their palaces with such outstanding personalities as Ibn-Tufayl, Ibn-Rushd, al-Muwahhids became helpless before the reconquista. In 1212, near the town of Las Navas de Tolosa, the united Christian army defeated them, and the al-Muwahhid dynasty was forced to leave Spain.

The Spanish kings, quarreling among themselves, left the enmity aside, and united against the Arabs. The Reconquista movement against Muslims involved the combined forces of the Castilian, Aragonese, Navarre and Portuguese kingdoms. In 1236 the Muslims lost Cordoba, in 1248 Seville, in 1229-35 the Balearic Islands, in 1238 Valencia. Having captured the city of Cadiz in 1262, the Spaniards reached the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.

Only the Emirate of Grenada remained in the hands of the Muslims. At the end of the 13th century, Ibn al-Ahmar, nicknamed Muhammad al-Ghalib, who was from the Nasrid dynasty, retreated to the city of Granada, and fortified the Alhambra (al-Hamra) fortress here. He was able to maintain his relative independence, subject to the payment of taxes to the Castilian king. In the palace of the Grenadian emirs, who for two centuries were able to defend their independence, such thinkers as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib served.
In 1469, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Isabella, Queen of Castile. The Aragonese-Castilian kingdom united all of Spain. The emirs of Grenada refused to pay them taxes. In 1492, Grenada fell to a powerful Spanish onslaught. The last Muslim fort in the Iberian Peninsula was captured. And with this, all of Spain was conquered from the Arabs and the Reconquista movement ended in victory for Christians.

The Muslims gave up Grenada on the condition that their religion, language and property would be intact. However,
soon Ferdinand II broke his promise, and a wave of mass persecution and oppression began against the Muslims. First, they were forced to accept Christianity. Those who did not want to convert to Christianity were brought to the terrible court of the Inquisition. Those who changed their religion in order to escape torture soon realized that they had been deceived. The Inquisition declared the new Christians insincere and questionable, and began to burn them at the stake. At the instigation of the church leadership, hundreds of thousands of Muslims were killed: old people, young people, women, men. The monk of the Dominican Order Belida proposed to destroy all Muslims, young and old. He said that one should not show mercy even to those who converted to Christianity, because their sincerity is in question: "If we do not know what is in their hearts, then we must kill them so that the Lord God will bring them to his own judgment." ... The priests liked the offer of this monk, but the Spanish government, fearing the Muslim states, did not approve of this offer.

In 1610, the Spanish government required all Muslims to leave the country. The Arabs left in a stalemate began to move. Within a few months, more than a million Muslims left Spain. From 1492 to 1610, as a result of massacres against Muslims and their emigration, the population of Spain dropped to three million people. Most terrible of all, Muslims leaving the country were attacked by local residents, as a result of which many Muslims were killed. Monk Belida was happy to report that three-quarters of the migrating Muslims died on the way. The mentioned monk himself personally participated in the murder of one hundred thousand people who were part of the 140 thousandth caravan of Muslims heading towards Africa. Truly, the bloody crimes committed in Spain against Muslims leave the night of St. Bartholomew in the shadows.

The Arabs, having entered Spain, which was very far from culture, raised it to highest point civilization, and ruled here for eight centuries. With the departure of the Arabs, Spain underwent a terrible decline and for a long time could not correct this decline. Expelling the Arabs, Spain lost highly developed agriculture, trade and art, science and literature, as well as three million people of science and culture. Once the population of Cordoba was one million people, but now it is home to only 300 thousand people. Under the Muslim rule, the population of the city of Toledo was 200 thousand people, and now it is home to less than 50 thousand people. Thus, it is safe to say that despite the fact that the Spaniards defeated the Arabs in the war, abandoning the great Islamic civilization, they plunged themselves into the abyss of ignorance and backwardness.

(The article used the book "Islam and Arab Civilization" by Gustave le Bon)

Capture of Khorezm by the Arabs

The first Arab raids on Khorezm date back to the 7th century. In 712, Khorezm was conquered by the Arab commander Kuteiba ibn Muslim, who perpetrated a cruel reprisal against the Khorezm aristocracy. Kuteiba brought down especially brutal repressions on the scientists of Khorezm. As al-Biruni writes in the Chronicles of Past Generations, “and by all means scattered and destroyed Kuteiba all who knew the writing of the Khorezmians, who kept their legends, all the scientists who were among them, so that all this was covered with darkness and there is no true knowledge about what was known from their history before the establishment of Islam by the Arabs.

Arab sources say almost nothing about Khorezm for the next decades. But it is known from Chinese sources that Khorezmshah Shaushafar in 751 sent an embassy to China, which was at war with the Arabs at that time. During this period, a short-term political unification of Khorezm and Khazaria takes place. Nothing is known about the circumstances of the restoration of Arab sovereignty over Khorezm. In any case, only at the very end of the VIII century. Shaushafar's grandson adopts the Arabic name of Abdallah and mints the names of Arab governors on his coins.

In the 10th century, a new flourishing of the city life of Khorezm begins. Arab sources paint a picture of the exceptional economic activity of Khorezm in the 10th century, with the surrounding steppes of Turkmenistan and western Kazakhstan, as well as the Volga region - Khazaria and Bulgaria, and the vast Slavic world of Eastern Europe becoming the arena for the activities of Khorezm merchants. The growing role of trade with Eastern Europe pushed the city of Urgench (now Koneurgench) to the first place in Khorezm [to be clarified], which became the natural center of this trade. In 995, the last Afrigid Abu-Abdallah Muhammad was captured and killed by the Emir of Urgench Mamun ibn-Muhammad. Khorezm was united under the rule of Urgench.

Khorezm in this era was a city of high learning. Natives of Khorezm were such outstanding scholars as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khorezmi, Ibn Iraq, Abu Reikhan al-Biruni, al-Chagmini.

In 1017 Khorezm was subordinated to Sultan Mahmud Ghaznevi, and in 1043 it was conquered by the Seljuq Turks.

Dynasty of Arabshahids

The real name of this country from ancient times was Khorezm... The khanate was founded by nomadic Uzbek tribes who captured Khorezm in 1511, under the leadership of the sultans Ilbars and Balbars, the descendants of Yadigar Khan. They belonged to the Chingizid branch, descended from Arab-shah-ibn-Pilad, a descendant of Shiban in the 9th generation, therefore the dynasty is usually called Arabshahids. Shiban, in turn, was the fifth son of Jochi.

The Arabshahids, as a rule, were at enmity with another branch of the Shibanids, which settled at the same time in Maverannahr after the seizures of Shaybani Khan; the Uzbeks, who occupied Khorezm in 1511, did not participate in the campaigns of Shaybani Khan.

The Arabshahids adhered to the steppe traditions, dividing the khanate into estates according to the number of men (sultans) in the dynasty. The supreme ruler, Khan, was the eldest in the family and elected by the council of the sultans. During almost the entire 16th century, Urgench was the capital. Khiva became the residence of the khan for the first time in 1557-58. (for one year) and only during the reign of Arab-Muhammad-Khan (1603-1622) Khiva became the capital. In the 16th century, the Khanate included, in addition to Khorezm, oases in the north of Khorasan and Turkmen tribes in the sands of Kara-Kum. The sultans' possessions often included districts in both Khorezm and Khorasan. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the khanate was a loose confederation of virtually independent sultanates, under the nominal rule of the khan.

Before the arrival of the Uzbeks, Khorezm lost its cultural significance due to the destruction caused by Timur in the 1380s. A significant sedentary population survived only in the southern part of the country. Many previously irrigated lands, especially in the north, were abandoned and urban culture was in decline. The economic weakness of the khanate was reflected by the fact that it did not have its own money and Bukhara coins were used until the end of the 18th century. Under such conditions, the Uzbeks could maintain their nomadic way of life longer than their southern neighbors. They were the military estate in the khanate, and the sedentary Sarts (descendants of the local Tajik population) were taxpayers. The authority of the khan and the sultans depended on the military support of the Uzbek tribes; to reduce this dependence, the khans often hired Turkmen, as a result of which the role of the Turkmen in the political life of the khanate grew and they began to settle in Khorezm. Relations between the khanate and the Sheibanids in Bukhara were generally hostile, the Arabshahids often entered into an alliance with the Safavid Iran against their Uzbek neighbors and three times; in 1538, 1593 and 1595-1598 the khanate was occupied by the Sheibanids. By the end of the 16th century, after a series of internal wars in which most of the Arabshahids were killed, the system of dividing the khanate between the sultans was abolished. Shortly thereafter, at the beginning of the 17th century, Iran occupied the lands of the Khanate in Khorasan.

The reign of the famous khan-historian Abu-l-Gazi (1643-1663), and his son and heir Anush Khan, were periods of relative political stability and economic progress. Large-scale irrigation works were undertaken, and new irrigated land was divided among the Uzbek tribes; which became more and more settled. However, the country was still poor, and the khans filled their empty treasury with booty from predatory raids against their neighbors. From that time until the middle of the 19th century, the country was, in the words of historians, "a predatory state."

Culture in Spain during the Caliphate

The Alhambra, a pearl of Arab art

Tiles from the Alhambra. XIV century. National Archaeological Museum, Madrid.

Arab harems

The eastern harem is the secret dream of men and the personified curse of women, the focus of sensual pleasures and the exquisite boredom of the beautiful concubines languishing in it. All this is nothing more than a myth created by the talent of the novelists. A real harem is more pragmatic and sophisticated, like everything that was an integral part of the life and life of the Arab people.

The traditional harem (from the Arabic "haram" - forbidden) is primarily the female half of the Muslim house. Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem." Harem - the kingdom of luxury and lost hopes ...

Haram - forbidden territory
During early Islam, the traditional inhabitants of the harem were the wives and daughters of the head of the family and his sons. Depending on the well-being of the Arab, slaves could live in the harem, whose main task was the harem economy and all the hard work associated with it.

The institution of concubines appeared much later, during the time of the Caliphates and their conquests, when the number of beautiful women became an indicator of wealth and power, and the law introduced by the Prophet Muhammad, which did not allow having more than four wives, significantly limited the possibilities of polygamy.

In order to cross the threshold of the seraglio, the slave went through a kind of initiation ceremony. In addition to checking for innocence, the girl was obliged to convert to Islam.

Entering a harem was in many ways reminiscent of being tonsured a nun, where instead of selfless service to God, no less selfless service to the master was instilled. Concubine candidates, like the brides of God, were forced to sever all ties with the outside world, received new names and learned to live in obedience. In later harems, wives were absent as such. The main source of the privileged position was the attention of the Sultan and childbirth. Giving attention to one of the concubines, the owner of the harem raised her to the rank of a temporary wife. This situation was often precarious and could change at any moment depending on the mood of the master. The most reliable way to gain a foothold in the status of a wife was the birth of a boy. The concubine who gave her master a son acquired the status of mistress.

Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem."

In addition to the old proven slaves, the concubines were watched by eunuchs. Translated from Greek "eunuch" means "keeper of the bed." They fell into the harem exclusively in the form of overseers, so to speak, to maintain order.

General history. History of the Middle Ages. Grade 6 Abramov Andrey Vyacheslavovich

§ 10. The conquests of the Arabs and the creation of the Arab Caliphate

The beginning of the aggressive campaigns of the Arabs

The death of Muhammad led to uprisings by opponents of the Islamic state, which broke out in different parts of Arabia. However, these uprisings were quickly suppressed, and the Muslims began to conquer other countries. The main opponents of the Arabs were the Byzantine Empire and Iran.

Arab warrior

Muhammad also sent a message to the Byzantine emperor urging him to convert to Islam. It said: “Submit (convert to Islam) and you will be saved. Allah will reward you twice. O people of the Scripture! Unite around the common Word for us and you! " The ruler of Constantinople did not consider it necessary to answer the prophet, but soon he felt the power of the Muslims weapon. The Byzantine army was unable to withstand the onslaught of the Arab cavalry, inspired by the new religion. Muslims gladly accepted death, hoping to taste the heavenly bliss promised by the prophet.

Muslim military successes

During the campaigns of conquest, the army of the Arabs led by the caliphs subjugated the richest countries of the Middle East. Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia were taken away from the Byzantines. The Arabs took possession of Damascus, the largest city in Syria, and Jerusalem, the holy city of Christians and Jews. After several defeats, the Iranian state ceased to exist. In the decisive battle, the Arabs lost a third of their army, but were not afraid and defeated the Iranians. Their king fled to a distant province and died there.

Muslims storm a fortress in Syria. Medieval drawing

In Africa, the Arabs took over Egypt. The Byzantine army was unable to resist the conquerors even here. The largest city in Egypt, Alexandria, surrendered without a fight to the Muslims, who promised not to touch Christian churches for a rich ransom. Of their eastern possessions, the Byzantine emperors managed to preserve only Asia Minor. The Arabs more than once besieged Constantinople, but could not take it.

Remember in what era and by whom the city of Alexandria was founded.

Having subdued North Africa, the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and landed in Spain. A small army of Arabs defeated the army of the Visigoth king. Despite stubborn resistance, the Visigoth cities fell one after another. By 718, all of Spain, except for a small area in the north of the country, was in the hands of the Arabs. They then invaded the Frankish kingdom and were only stopped by Karl Martell at the Battle of Poitiers.

By the middle of the VIII century, as a result of the conquests, a huge Muslim state arose - the Arab Caliphate. It included countries with fertile soils - Egypt and Mesopotamia, which used to be granaries Ancient Rome and Byzantium. The Arabs captured all the gold deposits known at that time. They put under their control the sea and land trade routes connecting the Mediterranean markets with the countries of the Far East, Central Asia, and the interior regions of Africa. All this made the Caliphate the richest state in the world.

The first caliphs and schism in Islam

The first caliphs in their way of life differed little from ordinary Muslims. Like the Prophet Muhammad, they combined secular and spiritual power in their hands. During the period of the conquests, the caliphs were supposed to be military leaders. Caliph Omar (634–644) became famous for his talent as a commander. He was known as a harsh but just ruler who did not seek personal enrichment, although the Arab army took possession of huge treasures.

After the death of Omar, Osman (644–656) was elected caliph. The new caliph came from a clan that was initially hostile to Muhammad, but then converted to Islam. When distributing wealth captured during the campaigns and appointing to important positions, Osman gave preference to his relatives. The governors of the conquered regions, who had real military power, listened less and less to the caliph who lived in Medina. The Muslim nobility organized a conspiracy against Osman, and the caliph was killed on the threshold of his own house. At the same time, the blood of the ruler got on the list of the Koran, which he held in his hands.

Even more dramatic events unfolded during the reign of Caliph Ali (656–661). The internecine war and the subsequent murder of Ali led to the split of Muslims into warring factions - sunnis and shiites. After Ali's death in 661, the governor of Syria declared himself the caliph. He did not go to Mecca or Medina, but remained in Damascus, founding the Umayyad dynasty.

The inner life of the Arab Caliphate

At the end of the 7th century, the caliphs from the “deputies” of the Prophet Muhammad turned into unlimited rulers, and their power from elective became hereditary. In the hands of the caliphs, the untold wealth was concentrated, flowing from the conquered countries. Every year, tons of silver and gold arrived in their capital in the form of tribute. The rulers could dispose of them at their discretion. The Muslim nobility, which consisted not only of Arabs, but also of representatives of other peoples inhabiting the Caliphate, had a great influence on the affairs of the state. Noble Muslims - generals and governors of the provinces quickly forgot the calls of the Prophet Muhammad to despise wealth and share their property with the poor. Imitating the nobles of the occupied countries, they erected magnificent palaces filled with treasures.

The conquests changed the life and life of the nomadic Arabs who took part in them. Some of them abandoned their former occupations, becoming inhabitants of cities and fertile valleys. The Arabic language became common for the population of the subordinate countries. However, many Arabs returned to Arabia, continuing their normal lives.

Trade in the Muslim bazaar. Medieval drawing

The lands conquered by the Arabs were declared the property of the entire Muslim community. The people who lived on these lands had to pay land tax or convert to Islam. In the conquered lands, the Arabs at first did not forcibly force the local population to become Muslims. The "People of the Book" - Christians and Jews who recognized one God, were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, but they had to pay a special poll tax. The Muslims were intolerant of pagans: on pain of extermination, they were asked to accept Islam. It was beneficial for the population of the conquered countries to convert to the new faith, since it was immediately exempt from taxes. Muslims paid only alms to the poor.

Why were Muslims tolerant of the faith of Christians and Jews?

However, after a few decades, the attitude of Muslims towards people of other religions changed, and their oppression began. One of the caliphs issued a decree in which he ordered Christians and Jews “from now on to wear a yellow dress; do not wear a white dress, so as not to be like Muslims; to destroy the newly built temples, to double the total tax; do not allow them to enter Muslim baths ... do not take Muslims for personal services ... ”A Christian who dared to hit a Muslim was subjected to the death penalty.

What has changed in the attitude of Muslims towards representatives of other religions?

Collapse of the Arab Caliphate

The Umayyad rule caused discontent among the people, which was used by the opponents of the Caliphs. In 750, the power of the Umayyads was overthrown, and they themselves were exterminated. The Abbasids became the new rulers of the Muslim state, who made the capital of the Caliphate the city of Baghdad on the Tigris River in Mesopotamia.

Caliph Haroun al-Rashid with his entourage. Medieval miniature

In the VIII-IX centuries, the Arab Caliphate reached the peak of its power. However, the decline of this power was already close. About 80 million people lived on the lands of the Caliphate. The majority of the population were conquered peoples who converted to Islam. It was difficult to govern such a large state, and the caliphs retained their power only by force of arms. Here and there, riots and uprisings broke out, shaking the Islamic state. His strength was also undermined by the ongoing feud between Sunnis and Shiites. The governors of the remote provinces refused to obey the authority of the Baghdad Caliph and did not send him the tribute he was supposed to. Gradually, they created their own independent states.

Muslim warriors. Arab miniature

The main support of the caliphs were detachments of slaves who were raised and trained at court. Such an army brutally suppressed protests against the ruler. But even the caliphs were sometimes unable to cope with the slave warriors, who could easily remove them from the throne. Gradually, by the 10th century, the Caliphate lost most of its possessions, retaining under its rule only the lands around Baghdad. Becoming a mere toy in the hands of their army, the caliphs lost secular power, retaining their authority only in matters of religion. In place of a huge power, many Muslim states arose, in which Arabic was spoken. Despite the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the faith of the Prophet Muhammad spread far beyond the borders of Arabia. It was carried to the countries of Asia, Africa, Europe not only by soldiers, but also by merchants and preachers.

The campaigns and conquests of the Arabs. Arab Caliphate

Using the map, name the countries and peoples conquered by the Arabs. What are the places of the most important victories and major defeats of the Arabs?

Let's sum up

The Arab conquests led to the emergence of a huge Arab Caliphate. In the countries that made it up, people's lives were organized in accordance with the requirements of the Islamic religion.

Sunnis - supporters of one of the groups in Islam, who honor not only the Koran, but also the oral tradition of the deeds and sayings of Muhammad - Sunna.

Shiites - supporters of one of the groups in Islam, who recognize the Koran as the only holy book, who consider only Ali and his descendants to be legitimate caliphs.

661 The beginning of the reign of the Umayyad dynasty.

750 The overthrow of the Umayyads, the beginning of the rule of the Abbasid dynasty.

1. Tell us about the course of the Arab conquests. Why did the Muslim Arabs manage to quickly conquer many countries of the East?

2. What was the attitude of the Arabs towards the conquered peoples? How has it changed? Why?

3. What authority did the caliphs have?

4. What changes have occurred in the Arab state by the 10th century in comparison with the time of the first caliphs?

5. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate.

Using the paragraph text and the map, fill in the Arab Conquest table.

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