The essence of the ancient doctrine which is called physiognomy. The history of physiognomy

The topic sounded like this: "Fundamentals of physiognomy".

The topic is academic and looks more like an institute course book :-) Let's try to study this issue in a more interesting way. So what is PHYSIOGNOMICS - the doctrine of human expression in facial features and body shapes; in a broad sense - the art of interpreting the external appearance of the observed phenomena, the doctrine of the expressive forms of any area of \u200b\u200breality.

In eight out of ten cases, a person perceives another person by the impression of their appearance. The most important element in a person's physical appearance is his face, and most people in the process of communication most often concentrate their attention on the face of the interlocutor and on his eyes.

The specificity of the technology of personal charm is that a significant part of the time in it is devoted to the so-called face-building - face building. It is here that the classic postulate of the proportionality of form and content is put into practice.

In Vivian Connell's novel “The Golden Dream”, the image of a girl is described, which reflects the information potential that a face possesses: “She was very young, and he did not notice traces of makeup and lipstick on her face. An ancient family could be seen behind her striking appearance, this could be judged by the impeccable outlines of the head from the noble forehead to the graceful chin. The shape of the nose evoked the most perfect examples of antiquity. The color of the eyes could not be discerned - they just seemed bright in the light of the lamps. Her whole face was sculpted in order to emphasize the mind - everything except her lips. To see these lips once - and it is impossible to cope with your desire, as in Rosetti's canvases, they were so fresh, tender. They did not belong to anyone and lived their own lives. Her whole appearance spoke of the fact that she was created for love, she just had to be grown, nurtured, like a precious rose in a spring garden. "

So, we begin to study the “construction” of the appearance from the knowledge of our face: its shape, details and their “reading” with the help of the science of physiognomy, from the elucidation of the effect of facial expressions and a set of exercises for face-building.

The face is one of the characteristics of a person's appearance. Knowing the keys for reading a person, having the appropriate ability to remove information from the interlocutor's face, you can significantly enrich your communication technology.

The inner essence of the personality is "read" in the person's face. We read about this in a poem by M. Schaffi:

Every face has a clear trace of history,

Anger, love, suffering, years lived,

The inner essence of the owner is visible here,

These words confirm the idea that troubles and joys, sympathies and antipathies are clearly reflected on the face of every person - all the most intimate. Everyone can read it, but not everyone can understand it. Those who managed to understand this created an amazing science - physiognomy.

Physiognomists by facial features and expression, by its shape and details were able to reveal, "read" the hidden characteristics of the personality. This allows you to navigate people on the go, find the appropriate key to communication, and predict behavior patterns.

Physiognomy (in Greek: "physis" - nature and "gnosis" - knowledge, knowledge) - the study or knowledge of nature.

Some scientists consider physiognomy an art, others call it a science. So, V.M. Shepel in the book "Imageology: Secrets of Personal Charm" writes that physiognomy is "the science of face types, the ability to read them and reveal hidden personality characteristics by their features."

Physiognomy as the art of recognizing the character of a person by facial features and expression of eyes originated in ancient China, and in the West became widespread in Ancient Greece.

Eastern connoisseurs have long been able to determine the inclinations and even the fate of a person by the face. In the East, scientists believed that innate human qualities play the main role in life success. In this case, external signs are the visible part of the iceberg. Physiognomy has constitutional characteristics that are genetically transmitted. Physical signs indicate pronounced character traits. So, the physical signs that characterize the ways of verbal expression are concentrated in the mouth; signs associated with logical and evaluative abilities - in the eye area. An indicator of inner self-confidence is the ratio of the length of the face to the width of the lower part of the forehead, wide nostrils and a protruding chin, etc. In other words, such bright visual indicators as the forehead, eyebrows, eyes, nose, chin, create the effect of informational content on the face.

It should be said that Eastern physiognomy differs from Western physiognomy, since each culture has specific "keys for reading" a person's appearance with subsequent interpretation of him as a person. These keys are effective when applied to representatives of one culture, as they help to quickly and adequately perceive another person. But they are not always suitable for the perception of other cultures. So, the Vietnamese have a sign: a big mouth for men means intelligence, while the Russians have no such analogy. Therefore, when representatives of different cultures interact, the mechanism of physiognomic assessment (reduction) may fail.

Physiognomy is the doctrine of the connections between the external appearance of a person and his belonging to a certain type of personality.

Pythagoras is considered the creator of physiognomy. He easily solved not only the problems of the exact sciences, but also the secrets of the human face, and he accepted the students only after carefully examining them from head to toe, and did not undertake to teach them mathematics, if he did not see signs on the face indicating ability to this science.

Indirect evidence suggests that the ability to “read faces” was also possessed by residents Ancient egypt... But the ancient Egyptian civilization did not leave direct written evidence about this art, and now it is customary to consider the peoples of the East to be the true founders of physiognomy.

The Eastern art of determining the fate of a person by the features of his face has been known for more than three thousand years. In China, its founder is considered to be a Taoist sage nicknamed Guigu-tzu (translated from Chinese - "teacher from the valley of werewolves"), who was distinguished by an amazing skill of the physiognomist. The earliest available at the moment classic work about fortune telling - "Detailed analysis of the face" belongs to the pen of this author. Guigu-tzu had many followers and successors of his work.

Already in the days of Confucius, the art of reading the faces of Xiang Mien (according to other interpretations - Xiang Ming), reached full bloom. This knowledge was considered sacred, was jealously guarded by the ministers of the cult as a great treasure, passed down through generations from teacher to student and was available only to the highest rulers endowed with unlimited power. This situation determined the main direction of thought of the ancient Eastern physiognomists. First of all, they looked for signs on the faces of their compatriots, indicating that a person belongs to the ruling elite.

Historians and writers of ancient China set out their observations in great detail. From their descriptions, one can understand that the main signs of nobility were then considered various genetic anomalies. For example, Emperor Yu (over 2000 BC) had three holes in each ear; the Wen ruler, the founder of the Zhou dynasty - two nipples on each breast; Emperor Sun, heir to Emperor Yao, was born with two pupils in each eye. Ancient sources state that Emperor Liu Bei and Emperor Wu of the Jin Dynasty had such long arms that when standing, they touched their knees with their palms. Emperor Tai Zhu, who ruled during the late Zhou dynasty, had the same long arms. And the first minister of the empress Wu Izetyan, Li Qiao, according to the chroniclers, generally breathed through his ears.

Which of the testimonies of Chinese historians about the unusual features of their emperors is true, and which is fiction, now cannot be established. The only thing that can be said with certainty: the first of the directions of research of ancient Eastern physiognomists is the search for signs of higher power on faces. And those features that in the West were perceived as an ugliness worthy only of demonstration in fairgrounds, in the East were considered the lot of the elect, evidence of the mercy of heaven.

No less than the signs of rulers, the ancient Chinese were interested in the financial capabilities of a person and the duration of his life. These three areas were considered the main ones, although besides them, the concept of “fortune telling” included many other issues - health at different periods of life, relations with justice, family life, etc. Predictions of relationships with parents, children, brothers, etc. sisters.

It was believed that a person with long, beautiful and shiny eyebrows would have many sisters and brothers with whom he would get along well, and a person with uneven thin eyebrows would have few sisters and brothers, and even with those he would quarrel over inheritance. Even the sequence of the departure of relatives to a different world was considered by the Chinese physiognomists to be predetermined and readable on the face. So, some authors argued that if a person's upper lip is longer than the lower one, then his father will die before the mother, and if the lower lip is longer than the upper one, then the mother will die first. Moreover, to confirm the truth of their statements, ancient Chinese sources cite, as a rule, one or two examples, considering them to be quite sufficient for fundamental conclusions.

The general goal of ancient Eastern physiognomy is to predict fate. To achieve this goal, to accurately determine the path of life, EVERYTHING matters in oriental art. In the literal sense of the word. There is not a single facial feature that would not influence the conclusions of the Eastern predictor.

Physiognomists' teaching begins with an understanding of the principle of balance and proportion. Not a single facial feature should stand out strongly or fall out of the general ensemble. That is why a plaque was nailed over the entrance to Plato's school with the inscription: "Let no unmeasured enter here." The ancient Greeks were excellent physiognomists, therefore they strove to sow the eternal, kind, light in fertile soil, which bore fruit - gifted and talented followers.

The first physiognomic treatise is attributed to Aristotle, who laid the foundations for the doctrine of the face. He believed that facial features and general expression characterize a certain type; they can be used to judge the character of a person, the level of his intellect, giftedness.

The views of Aristotle were shared by the great healer of the East Avicenna, who, analyzing the expression on the patient's face, when making a diagnosis, attached his arguments in physiognomy. Paraphysiognomy is also important in modern research in medicine and psychiatry. In this direction, the works of Ch. Lombroso are interesting, who tried to identify criminals by specific facial features.

There are many physiognomic systems, the most common of which are the Gall, Porto, Lombroso, Lavater, Ledo systems.

Franz Josef Gall's teaching on phrenology was criticized at the beginning of the 19th century, since there was no evidence that a person's abilities were in any way reflected in the configuration of the skull. However, thanks to Gall, many previously unknown properties of the brain, centers of speech, writing, hearing, vision, were discovered. Gall was the first to put forward the problem of the relationship between body structure and character.

Based on Gall's phrenological treatises, the Italian physician Cesare Lombroso believed that there are areas in the human brain, from which motives for murder, theft and other vicious acts emanate. He conducted observations on 3839 people who committed various crimes, and examined 383 skulls of executed criminals. C. Lombroso came to the conclusion that in appearance the criminals had deviations from the norm for a modern person - a sloping forehead with prominent frontal tubercles, an inability to blush, tolerance of pain, a tendency to tattoo. Lombroso's doctrine of the "innate criminal" was scornfully rejected by subsequent generations of doctors and lawyers.

The Swiss pastor, theologian and poet Johann Gaspard Lavater sketched thousands of faces and made a "bible of physiognomy" out of them. He argued that the inner essence of a person can be recognized by facial features. Lavater believed that by the expression of the eyes and the shape of the mouth, one can judge not only the mood of a person at a given moment, but also about character in general. His four-volume illustrated work was very popular at the time. Catherine II showed a special interest in physiognomy and sent a Russian delegation headed by her son Pavel to Lafater in Switzerland for an interview.

Let's just try to list a small part of the parameters that are subject to mandatory definition and interpretation in Chinese physiognomy. These include:

ethnicity (from which part of China this person is);
gender and age of the person;
face type, face shape, parts of the face and their ratio;
facial structure, individual organs, their complex combination and harmony;
the color of the whole face, the color of individual parts, the color of the “match points”;
a comprehensive and detailed assessment of twenty key positions (“three parts”, “five mountains” and “twelve palaces”), the mutual influence of these positions, an assessment of various combinations;
the mutual influence of the five basic elements (wood, fire, water and metal), the influence of each of these elements on each of the above positions;
external resemblance to any animal;
indirect factors: voice, facial expressions, gestures;
the time of year and time of day when the study is being conducted;
correspondence of parts of the face and facial features to geographic points and seasons (for example, the forehead corresponds to the south and summer, the mouth - to the north and winter), the ratio of these correspondences, their versatile assessment.
the correspondence of certain points on the face (there are over a hundred of them) to a certain age, which is attributed to them by ancient interpreters. Moreover, the point itself, in addition to being age-appropriate, does not say anything; the predictor must GUESS its meaning, evaluating what he saw as a “favorable” or “unfavorable” sign.

For each of all these characteristics, estimates of values \u200b\u200bare required: a characteristic can be good or bad, favorable or unfavorable.

Agree, the list is impressive. Moreover, EACH of the listed parameters also has subsections. Eastern physiognomists distinguish more than forty types of eyes alone. And if we add that the meaning of any sign can change the influence on the fate of any other sign, it becomes obvious that it is not possible to simultaneously take into account and objectively evaluate all the factors. The arguments of some modern authors of physiognomic treatises that any stubborn person can fully master this system look at least frivolous.

It must be honestly admitted that genuine Chinese physiognomy, based on the interpretations of the ancient sages and obliging to take into account the influence of “everything on everything,” is rather the art of fortune-telling based on an innate talent, similar to the clairvoyance of Wanga and Nostradamus, and all of the above mass of signs is just a dictionary terms, the basis for predictions. “When you do not know the words, there is nothing to know people with,” Confucius said.

The figurative convention of many statements, the allegory and vagueness of most of the formulations make it possible for any pseudo diviner to adjust his “predictions” to the real situation. An objective researcher cannot in this case verify the truth of the conclusions.

It is safe to say that a person who predicts fate using the art of Chinese physiognomy, either has extraordinary paranormal abilities, or is a fair amount of charlatan.

The European reader, who wished to use the numerous manuals and independently understand all the intricacies of the oriental art of physiognomy, will be disappointed: the fact is that all the conclusions and conclusions of the ancient sages relate only to the eastern (Chinese) type of person. These criteria do not apply to European persons.

Thus, for a European, the oriental art of reading faces is of too little practical value, so it is quite enough just to get acquainted with it without going into details.

Meanwhile, the West has had its own art of physiognomy for more than two thousand years, which is very different from the East and has its own laws and principles. It is this direction that is of practical interest to us.

Since this topic is very huge, you can study this issue in more detail yourself by following the links to the sources given below.

The physiognomic type, meaning by this expression not only facial features, but also the impression caused by the general structure of the body and the nature of some body movements from an astrological point of view, is determined by the following circumstances, which I cite in the order of their meaning:

1. stay in the 1st house of certain planets;
2. the nature of the owner of the 1st house;
3. the natures of the planets throwing aspects to the Ascendens;
4. by the nature of the Sign of the Zodiac, to which the Ascendens fall;
5. by the nature of the Master of the entire horoscope;
6. the rest of the horoscopic data.

This is how Tradition characterizes these "Planetary Types".

Saturn type

Saturnians are prone to fatigue from movement; they grow old early. Of unpleasant accidents, they are characterized by: falls with broken bones and all kinds of dislocations. Of the diseases they are characterized by: nervous diseases, paralysis, rheumatism, diseases of the legs, teeth, ears and hemorrhoids.
Saturnians are incredible in everything; independence of judgment, with some, however, a tendency to superstition.
Of the professions they are suitable: mathematics, law, agriculture, mining.
They love the black color in clothes; stingy; looking for loneliness and prone to melancholy.

Jupiter type

Show arrogance, love for festivities, officialdom, noisy feasts and conversations. Great grocery stores and drink connoisseurs; hunters before official performances; proud; love to patronize others; working, they always count on remuneration in one form or another. They have a lively temperament; sometimes hot-tempered, sometimes vain, but, in general, show kind-heartedness; cherish religious and family traditions, are always friendly and easily make and keep friends.
The most typical diseases of Jupiter: congestion of blood to the brain and apoplexy.
Jupiterians make good administrators, convinced masters of ceremonies, good presidents of large gatherings.

Mars type

Of the professions, the Martians are suitable for military service, theatrical and decorative business, surgery, firefighting.
Diseases inherent in them, the essence: all kinds of inflammatory processes (most of all, pneumonia; blood diseases; diseases of the cervical vessels).
Due to their natural inclinations, Martians are more susceptible to the danger of injuries, concussions, etc.
A parody of a pure type of Mars we have in the figure of the traditional Open.

Sun Type

The solar type values \u200b\u200bthe respect of neighbors very much, is prone to irascibility, which, however, easily moderates; everyone seems very nice, but does not know how to make reliable friends.
Men of the Solar type are often deceived by their own wives and abandoned by their own children. They love walking, reading; they are religious, gullible, proud and prone to conceit, dress original, but gracefully, love jewelry and ornaments. Very inclined to practice Occultism.

Most often by profession, inventors in the field of technology, good commentators and industrialists, and even more often - artists.
Of the diseases of this type are characteristic: heart disease, eye diseases and profuse bleeding.

Venus type

Venusians are best judged and invented by first impression. They adore flowers and perfumes, are lovers of fine gastronomy, in music they give priority to melody over harmony, hate quarrels and abuse, are distinguished by courtesy and friendliness; gullible to the extreme and extremely compassionate and merciful.
From diseases of this type, venereal and female are assigned.

Mercury type

Mercurians are soft in circulation; in trading they are inventive for all kinds of speculations; prone to competition. Merry disposition; they love jokes, are distinguished by homebody and childishness. By profession - speakers, professors, doctors, astrologers. They are prone to practicing Magic. They are skillfully engaged in trade. They are good at managing other people's affairs, but do not deserve unlimited trust.
Women of this type are unattractive. They are distinguished by coquetry, early maturity, cunning and a tendency to betrayal and deception.
Of the pathological phenomena, this type is characterized by: diseases of the liver and gallbladder and some disorders of the nervous system.

Lunar type

Representatives and representatives of this type are very fickle, easily amenable to moods, frivolous, distinguished by selfishness, coldness, laziness, a tendency to melancholy, lack of love for family life and a thirst for travel, mainly sea. The picture is completed with their love for drugs, constant concern for their own health, love for the fantastic direction in art, commitment to reading romantic literature, easy inspiration; an inclination to mysticism, the ability to clairvoyance, prophetic dreams; love for the use of animal magnetism and the constant search for a society of mature and experienced people.

The lunar type produces many poets, many occultists of lower degrees of Initiation, many travelers and adventurers. There are also high mystics among its representatives.
Lunar type diseases are: dropsy, disorders of the visual apparatus, up to blindness; disorders of the kidneys and bladder (of course, the whole class of gouty diseases) and all kinds of diseases of the uterus.

Of course, it is tricky to meet a person who fits exactly one of the types described. We almost always meet a mixture of types, however, with a predominance of certain planets, the nature of which we must take into account. When solving questions about the subject's abilities, about his choice of profession, etc. It is most interesting for the occultist to know how the abilities for certain branches of esotericism and the inclination for one or another of its practical applications are distributed between types.

IN teachers esotericism requires Saturn, Mercury and Venus. The presence of the Sun is desirable: Mars is sometimes appropriate.
For senior leaders in Freemasonry Jupiter, Venus and Mars are important.
Magu needs Saturn, Mercury and Mars.
Theurgu the Sun and Venus are needed.
To a Kabbalist theorist, like the armchair astrologer, Saturn and Mercury are needed.
Clairvoyants, psychometers, fortune tellers etc. always have a solid Moon.
For experiments with mediums, hysterics, sensitives, etc. it is most desirable to deal with patients of the type of a pure mixture of Venus and the Moon, and in the absence of such - a pure type of Venus. The latter are very susceptible to all kinds of suggestions.

In the Initiation Chains among the representatives of the lower degrees of Initiation, an abundance of young people with a predominant Lunar influence is always noticed. At first, they do not badly obey the Teachers, make good progress, but almost always subsequently fight off the Initiation Chains due to the inherent flexibility of the Moon type to outside influences.
Regarding the pure or almost pure Solar type, I will say that the Priestly studies are very suitable for him without complicating those with the Teacher.
The study of the history of Esotericism is very suitable for pure Jupiter.

Since ancient times, the human face has attracted scientists, thinkers and researchers. Each of them strove to create his own theory. Unfortunately, all of these theories were flawed.

The Greek philosopher and mathematician studied physiognomy Pythagoras (VI century BC) and scientists of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome: outstanding doctors Galen (II century BC) and Celsus (1st century BC), great thinkers Cicero (1st century BC), Pliny the Younger (1st century BC), Roman orator Quintilian (1st century BC), etc.

One of the most serious works devoted to the study of the human face belongs to Aristotle. He is considered one of the founders of the doctrine of physiognomy. He used it to recognize the spiritual qualities of people by their appearance. In his works, for example, there are these words: “If people have large foreheads, then they are slow in movement; if they have wide foreheads, then they are easily subject to madness; if their foreheads are rounded or convex, then they are quick-tempered. Straight eyebrows are a sign of a soft disposition. The rigidity of character is expressed by the eyebrows, which are rounded towards the nose. If the eyebrows at the same time converge with each other, then, perhaps, the main character trait is jealousy, low-standing eyebrows are a sign of envy.

Aristotle paid much attention to the eyes. Based on his observations, he made the following conclusions:

1. The state and capabilities of the human psyche can be judged on the basis of an assessment of the structural features of his head and face.

2. In addition, individual features of a person's face are similar to animals, which are endowed with qualities that are supposedly inherent in them: “a nose as thick as a bull means laziness; a wide nose with large nostrils like a pig's is stupidity; sharp, like a dog's nose - a sign of choleric temperament; aquiline nose means courage; hooked, like a crow's - alertness; whoever has a wide mouth is brave. "

3. You can also establish the similarity between an individual and representatives of entire races and nationalities - Ethiopians, Indians, Hittites, etc., then, having analyzed the personal characteristics of different peoples, determine the individual character by the severity of the corresponding external features.

4. If a person's face bears the features characteristic of the manifestation of certain emotional states (pacification, fear, passion), then it can be argued that this particular state is actually his individual characteristic. For example, if a person's face constantly resembles a mask of fear, then by nature he is most likely fearful.

Aristotle's positions have long served as the basis for the observations of physiognomists-researchers. In the Middle Ages, like many other sciences, physiognomy "went underground", but starting from the 15th century, it again became an object of general interest, doctors, clergy, philosophers, judges were engaged in it.

Contribution Leonardo da Vinci in depicting and understanding faces is priceless. He studied in detail the facial expressions, gestures and other expressive movements of a person, noting that a certain facial expression is characteristic not only of joy or grief, hatred or sadness, but also of various nuances of these experiences. “The one who laughs does not differ from the one who cries, neither with his eyes, nor with his mouth, nor with his cheeks, but only by the motionless position of the eyebrows, which are united in the one who is crying, and raised in the one who laughs ... - change differently for different reasons for crying. " The portrait of Mona Lisa he created is one of the greatest masterpieces of art. Leonardo da Vinci “portrayed that delightful smile, when you look at which you feel more heavenly than earthly joy .... looking closely, I am ready to swear that the vein on her neck is beating, ”wrote Vizari. The posing lady was entertained by musicians hired by Leonardo, perhaps this explains her legendary smile.

The Mona Lisa portrait opened a new approach to painting through a deeper than before understanding of another person from the side of his inner world, based on empathy - penetration into the feelings and experiences of a person. When you look at the portrait for a long time, it seems that it comes to life and the lady enters into a dialogue with you.

In his Treatise on Painting, Leonardo da Vinci recommended that artists always have an album with them, so that at any time they could make a graphic sketch of an interesting person's face that they accidentally met. At the same time, he advised to pay attention to the emotional experiences of people - joy, sadness, etc. and to accumulate in this way visual material about the human face, human facial expressions, which in the future can be useful when writing large canvases.

In his diaries, the artist reflects on practical techniques for quickly memorizing a face: “… about depicting a human face in profile from one time and one glance. For this case, you need to memorize the variety of four different parts of the profile - the nose, mouth, chin and forehead ... neck and shoulders. Let's take the case that there are ten types of noses, they are good since we are talking about a profile. There are eleven kinds of noses in front, and you will also find differences in other parts. "

Leonardo da Vinci was the first to correctly explain the connection between a stable facial expression and repetitive movements of facial muscles. For his research in the field of physiognomy, he chose old people, since their wrinkles and changes in facial features spoke of the suffering and feelings they experienced.

Zurich pastor Johannes (Gaspard) Lavater (XVIII) was the most famous physiognomist of his time, a talented researcher and indefatigable worker, who possessed logical thinking and extraordinary intuition. He owns a ten-volume composition "The art of knowing people by their faces." Like no one else, he knew how to determine the character and future of a person by his face. His job "Fragments of physiognomy" published between 1775 and 1778, it has been translated into different languages \u200b\u200band used by specialists from different countries over the years.

Lavater studied the psychological characteristics of a person, using the confessions of parishioners, and then compared the findings with the characteristics of facial features. Thus, thousands of persons well known to him were described, and on the basis of this material conclusions were drawn about the relationship between the shape of the profile and the inner warehouse of a person. So, he believed that the structure and outlines of the skull and forehead reflect the mental life of a person, and the structure of the facial muscles, the outlines of the nose and cheeks - the moral and emotional life; the shape of the mouth and jawline reveal sensual, animal qualities.

Lavater, defining features of character by the relief of the face and the structure of the skull, claimed the role of the founder of a new science: "Faces are as readable as they are in books, the only difference is that they are read in a short time and deceive us less."

However, Lavater made a number of mistakes that are unacceptable for a serious researcher, and subsequently his works drew serious criticism on the following points:

The subject of his observations was not all facial features and their totality, but mainly its lower part and the so-called facial profile.

Lack of a systematic approach.

Objective laws were quite often replaced by the author's subjective opinion.

Nevertheless, Lavater's ideas found their admirers. People from all over the world came to his performances and physiognomic sessions, he was sent portraits, casts and masks. The physiognomist was admired, he was extolled, but at the same time they were afraid. For example, Count Cagliostro, an adventurer and sorcerer, who was rumored to be 350 years old and could turn iron into gold, avoided meeting with him. To a large extent, the Austrian doctor Franz Josef Gall, who created his own interesting theory, shared Lavater's views.

Franz Josef Gall - a famous Austrian physician and anatomist studied the brain. He was the first to express the opinion that the peculiarities of thinking should be associated with the peculiarities of the structure of the brain. In the cerebral hemispheres, he wanted to find "centers" to determine all human abilities.

Gall created detailed maps of the brain, where he indicated the places where the moral and intellectual qualities of a person were concentrated. He argued that the shape and location of the bulges and depressions on the skull can be used to determine the character, inclinations and mental abilities of everyone. With the help of special measurements, he found "bumps of ability" for music, poetry and painting, "mounds" of ambition, avarice, courage, motherly love, etc.

He argued that strictly defined areas of the brain are responsible for the mind, emotions and feelings. The severity of certain qualities can be determined by the bulges in the corresponding place on the skull. According to the "bumps" on the skull, Gall and his students judged not only the prevalence of certain mental or moral aspirations of a person, but also predicted the future life of a child and tried to give advice on what his upbringing should be.

Thus, the doctrine was formed - "phrenology" (from the Greek phren - mind). The word "phrenology" was introduced by a student of Gall Spurzheim, Gall himself was against this term and used the terms "cephaloscopy" (from the Greek kephale - head), "Cranioscopy" (from the Greek kranion - skull), "Craniology".

Gall's theory quickly gained popularity, and his ideas played a positive role, as they:

Stimulated brain tissue research;

Served as a source of a new direction in research on the problem of localization of functions in the brain;

Contributed to the development of neuropsychology.

Therefore, the words written on the grave of Gall are quite fair: “Let us be grateful to him for what he did, and refrain from accusing him that he did not do what others would not dare to do, although he paved the way along which they will go. " Currently, scientists have compiled detailed maps of the functions of the brain.

The theories of I. Lavater and F. Gall played a certain role in the formation of Cesare Lombroso's theory of an innate criminal type.

Caesar (Cesare) Lombroso - Italian psychiatrist, anthropologist, forensic scientist, professor at the Universities of Pavia and Turin.

All his life Lombroso worked as a prison doctor and devoted his research to the narrow field of physiognomy - the study and description of the type of the so-called "Criminal man". He managed to create a classification of the facial features of criminals. Lombroso identified signs for the classification by analyzing the features of the appearance of 3,839 people who committed crimes, and 383 skulls of executed criminals.

Lombroso suggested that criminals not only differ in appearance from normal people, but also carry rudimentary (residual) signs of primitive man: irregular skull structure, facial asymmetry, dull sensitivity, inability to blush, etc. Based on these signs, Lombroso came to the conclusion that it is possible not only to establish the physiognomic type of a criminal person, but also to find features inherent in certain categories of criminals, for example, thieves, murderers, rapists. Anomalies in the psyche of these people are expressed in revenge, vanity, pride, weakness of reason, underdevelopment of moral feelings, peculiarities of speech, and even a special writing reminiscent of the hieroglyphs of ancient peoples.

In his book The Criminal Man (1876), he writes that “the murderers for the most part brachycephaly (short-headed, with a large transverse head diameter) with powerful jaws, long ears and glassy eyes; the thieves - dolichocephalic (long-headed, longitudinal dimensions of the head significantly exceed the transverse ones) with small eyes; swindlers and those who commit arson have a crooked nose ... ”.

The shape of the skull, nose, ears, hair color were subjected to observation and measurement and served as the basis for the conclusion that psychophysical characteristics of individual ancestors live in a criminal person by virtue of the law of heredity. The results of these studies are described in the book "The latest advances in the science of the criminal" (1890), in 1892 it was published in Russian and was immediately actively criticized by anthropological scientists. In the same year, the Brussels International Criminal Anthropological Congress was held, which recognized the inconsistency of the concept of a criminal person as a special type and all the provisions derived from this concept (the characteristic shape of the nose and ears).

Thus, the teachings of Lombroso found no further application. Of course, it would be very easy and convenient to identify criminals by the shape of eyebrows or nose, but the experience of criminologists shows that crimes are committed by people of very different appearance, sometimes even quite pleasant and attractive.

Another outstanding scientist who contributed to physiognomy is Charles Darwin. English scientist, naturalist, founder of the modern theory of evolution, he showed great interest in the expressive movements of man and higher animals. He presented his observations and conclusions in the work "On the Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals" (1872). His ideas served as the basis for the creation of various reference books on the psychological interpretation of facial expressions.

He deduced general laws governing the manifestation of emotions throughout the animal kingdom, and created a special branch of science - comparative biology.

He wrote that "each individual predominantly contracts only certain muscles of the face, following his personal inclinations, these muscles can be more developed and therefore the lines and wrinkles of the face formed by their usual contraction can become deeper and more prominent."

Darwin suggested that mimic movements were formed from useful actions, that is, what is now an expression of emotions, was previously a reaction that had some kind of adaptive meaning. For example, grinning teeth in anger is a residual reaction from using them (teeth) in a fight; Relaxing the muscles of the face - a smile that expresses affability - is the opposite of the muscle tension that is characteristic of hostile feelings; trembling is a consequence of muscle tension when mobilizing the body, for example, to attack.

Mimicry is due to innate mechanisms and depends on the type of animal. It follows that facial reactions must be closely related to certain emotions.

Darwin's theory is only partly correct, since facial expressions are not entirely due to innate factors. This is evidenced by numerous observations and experimental data. A lot of research has been devoted to finding out whether a person is able to correctly recognize the facial expressions of other people. In these studies, three types of material were used: drawings of facial expressions, photographs of emotions portrayed by actors, and photographs of spontaneous expression of emotions.

A Russian follower of physiognomy was a Russian professor I. A. Sikorsky, in 1861 he wrote the book "General Psychology with Physiognomy", in which he gave a detailed exposition of physiognomy, making extensive use of literary examples and reproductions of art pictures.

In his other book Physiognomy in an Illustrated Presentation, he gave a similar portrait of the killer: "Big ears, overdeveloped lower jaw, thick lips (weakness of the conscious will), weak contraction of the facial muscles."

In the same work, the professor cites the features that distinguish a healthy person from a patient: a strong tension of the muscles of the body (straightening the body), tension, vigor, freshness, originality of mind, straightness of eyebrows, facial expressions of joy. Opposite features, in his opinion, will indicate a person's weakness, fatigue, and soreness.

I. M. Sechenov - the creator of the Russian physiological school - in the book "Reflexes of the Brain" he wrote: "The mental activity of a person is expressed, as you know, by external signs, and usually all people, both simple, scientists, naturalists, and people involved in the spirit, judge the first by the latter, that is, by external signs ... Without exception, all the qualities of external manifestations of brain activity that we characterize, for example, with the words spirituality, passion, mockery, sadness, joy, etc., are nothing more than the result of more or less shortening of any muscle group - an act, as everyone knows, is purely mechanical. "

Over the years of the existence and development of physiognomy, truly invaluable material has been accumulated, including the connections between facial features and the characteristics of a person's character. Physiognomy determines not so much the actual character and possible behavior, but also how a person in most cases is perceived by an unfamiliar, unbiased person who sees him for the first time.

In the following chapters, you will find all the information you need to help you "read" faces. This skill will never be superfluous: meeting a new colleague, partner or flirting on a dating site, choosing a life partner or a new employee. What can you expect from a person? How will he behave in this or that situation? Does it suit you personally? You can easily find the answer to all these questions by reading the book to the end.

My light, mirror, tell me ...