The main stages of the ancient history of mankind. The oldest stage in human history briefly

Introduction.

History - (Greek Ιστορία, "research") - the sphere of humanitarian knowledge, which deals with the study of a person (his activities, state, worldview, social relations and organizations, etc.) in the past; in a narrower sense - a science that studies all kinds of sources about the past in order to establish the sequence of events, the objectivity of the described facts and draw conclusions about the causes of events.

The father of history as a science is considered Herodotus, who wrote the treatise "History", describing the Greco-Persian wars.

Herodotus.

History tells us about the past and the role played by one person or group of people in certain events. History is an interesting science, because it allows you to trace how, as a result of certain actions of people, events change, epochs come to replace one another, how revolutions occur, wars begin, or truces are concluded. What could be more interesting than a person and his life? Studying history, you can try to understand why people act in a certain way in any situations, how to learn from others' mistakes to make their own less. History is one of the most voluminous sciences, since includes not only the presentation of specific events, but also all kinds of their interpretations. Within the framework of one textbook there is no way to grasp the immensity. Therefore, in the classroom and in the textbook, only the tip of the iceberg of historical knowledge will be shown, a small part of what you can know.

History is a humanitarian science. Consequently, the human factor plays an important role in it. Consequently, history is prone to subjectivity more than any other science. Try to imagine if you had a conflict with a friend, and each of you will tell someone else about it ... Most likely the stories will turn out to be far from the same. And this will not happen because you deliberately tried to distort events in your favor. It's just that it is natural for a person to put his personal attitude into a story. But we were considering a situation that happened recently. What can we say about the affairs of bygone days? Therefore, the question arises of the reliability of historical knowledge and the sources that give us it.

Reliability and sources of historical knowledge.The historical method consists in following the principles and rules of working with primary sources and other evidence found in the course of research and then used in writing a historical work.

Historical Science deals with the facts that form the basis of all historical knowledge. All ideas and concepts are based on facts. The perception and explanation of historical reality, the ability to comprehend the essence of the historical process depend on the reliability of the facts. In historical science fact viewed in two senses: 1) as a phenomenon that took place in history; and 2) as its reflection in historical science (fact - knowledge).

But there is a close connection between them. The second is impossible without the first. By themselves, "bare facts" as "fragments of reality" may not say anything to the reader. Only the historian gives the fact a certain meaning, which depends on his general scientific and ideological-theoretical views. Therefore, in different systems of views, one and the same historical fact receives a different interpretation, a different meaning. Thus, there is an interpretation between a historical fact (event, phenomenon) and the corresponding scientific-historical fact. It is she who turns the facts of history into facts of science.

History is the science of the past, therefore there is no way to observe the object of its study. In most cases, the only source of information about the past for him is a historical monument, thanks to which he receives the necessary concrete historical data, factual material that forms the basis of historical knowledge.

Everything historical sources can be divided for 6 groups:

1. Written sources (epigraphic monuments, that is, ancient inscriptions on stone, metal, ceramics, etc.; graffiti - texts scrawled by hand on the walls of buildings, dishes; birch bark letters, manuscripts on papyrus, parchment and paper, printed materials and etc.).

2. Material monuments (tools, handicrafts, household items, dishes, clothing, jewelry, coins, weapons, remains of dwellings, architectural structures, etc.).

3. Ethnographic monuments - remnants of the ancient life of various peoples that have survived to this day.

4. Folklore materials - monuments of oral folk art, ie legends, songs, fairy tales, proverbs, sayings, anecdotes, etc.

5. Linguistic monuments - place names, personal names, etc.

6. Film and photo documents.

The study of the maximum number of all types of sources allows you to recreate a fairly complete and reliable picture of the historical process.

The following 4 sciences can be named as sciences that provide a large part of information:

Archeology is the science of antiquities, the study of the life and culture of ancient peoples on the basis of material monuments that have come down to us.

Ethnography is a science that studies the life of backward (relict) tribes and remnants of the past in modern societies.

Anthropology is a science that studies the bone remains of primitive people.

Linguistics is a science that studies language and reveals in it the most ancient layers that were formed in the distant past.

Civilization. Variants of their typology.

Civilization -integral socio-cultural systems with their own laws, which include :

Religion

Economic organization

Social organization

Political organization

Education and training system

Signs of civilization

High level of development of the manufacturing economy

The presence of political structures

Use of writing

Monumental structures

Natural community. historical communities living within the natural cycle.

For civilization, the natural community is characterized bydeification of nature, traditionalism in culture and collectivism in social life, power is based on tradition or blood relationship

Eastern civilization. Traditionalism, n low mobility and a weak variety of all forms of human life, the idea of \u200b\u200ba person's complete lack of freedom, an attitude of contemplation, political organization - despotism, collectivism

Western civilization. Signs of Western civilization can be considered:dynamism, orientation towards novelty, importance to the human person, individualism, rationality, freedom, equality, tolerance, respect for private property, democracy. A subspecies of Western civilization is a technogenic civilization, which began to form in the early 15th century and spread throughout the entire territory of the Earth.

Modern (global) civilization. In the modern world, a new global type of civilization has appeared, in which it is impossible for one civilization to exist in isolation from another. Peoples and cultures constantly influence each other, exchange the latest achievements in all areas of life.

Factors of historical development

Natural and climatic -determines the type of economy in a given territory, the activity that people will be mainly engaged in. Nature determines not only the type of activity that people will be engaged in in a given area, but also their relationship with each other, as well as the form of government. If the climate conditions are harsh, the more likely the emergence of collective forms of management, and the easier the living conditions, the more people will be inclined to individualism. In milder living conditions, government will be more democratic. The harsh climate also requires a sufficiently authoritarian leadership capable of collecting taxes in the face of scarce resources.

Geographic -Different geographic areas provide different opportunities for this. Some of them are so well suited for human life that they do not create the prerequisites for changing the environment, and hence the growth of needs and, ultimately, development. Others are so unfavorable that they impede any transformation.
The most rapidly developing territories are located at the crossroads of geographical routes connecting different peoples, near the centers of civilizations. Neighborhood with more developed countries contributes to the progress. This triggers a steady drive for improvement.

The economic factor.The idea that the economy plays a major role in history came in the second half of the 19th century. many historians. This trend, which is usually called historical and economic, or simply economic ("economism"), has received the widest distribution in the historical science of Germany, France, Great Britain, Russia. Moreover, at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, it became the leading one, which was recognized by both its champions and its opponents.

Ethnic factor ... Ethnic community (ethnos) - historically emerged type of stable social grouping of people, represented by the tribe, nationality, nation, group of peoples (Slavic ethnic community, etc.). The ethical factor is remarkably traced in the history of Russia, located at the intersection of Western and European civilizations. Russia borders on many peoples, interacts with them, adopts customs and traditions. Many words in the Russian language that we now perceive as native are in fact borrowed. In the process of cultural exchange, peoples develop noticeably. Ethnic interaction takes place in the process of human economic activity, military campaigns.

Periodization of world history.

1. Paleolithic (2 million years ago - 8 thousand years BC) - the era of the existence of a fossil man, as well as fossils, now extinct animal species. In the Paleolithic era, the Earth's climate, its flora and fauna were quite different from modern ones. People of the Paleolithic era used only chipped stone tools, not yet knowing how to polish them and make pottery - ceramics. They were engaged in hunting and gathering plant food. Fishing was just beginning to emerge, and agriculture and livestock were not known. The beginning of the Paleolithic period coincides with the appearance on Earth of the oldest ape-like

2. Mesolithic (8 thousand years. - 5 thousand years BC) the era of the Stone Age, transitional between the Paleolithic and Neolithic. For the Mesolithic cultures of many territories, miniature stone tools - microliths are characteristic. Chipped chopping tools made of stone were used - axes, tesla, pickaxes, as well as tools made of bone and horn - spearheads, harpoons, fish hooks, points, pickaxes, etc. Bow and arrows, various devices for fishing and hunting for sea animals ( dugout boats, nets). Earthenware appeared mainly during the transition from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic. The dog, which was probably domesticated in the late Paleolithic, was widely used in the Mesolithic; the domestication of some other species of animals also began (pigs, etc.). The basis of the economy was hunting, fishing and gathering (including the collection of edible molluscs). The prerequisites arose for the transition (already at the Neolithic stage) to the productive forms of economy - agriculture and cattle breeding.

3. Neolithic (5 thousand years ago - 3 thousand years BC) - the era of the later Stone Age, characterized by the use of exclusively flint, bone and stone tools (including those made using the technique of sawing, drilling and grinding) and, as a rule, the widespread use of pottery. The tools of labor of the Neolithic era represent the final stage in the development of stone tools, which are then replaced by increasingly large quantities of metal products. According to the cultural and economic characteristics, the cultures of the Neolithic fall into two groups: 1) farmers and cattle breeders and 2) developed hunters and fishermen. Neolithic cultures of the first group reflect the consequences of the transition to fundamentally new forms of obtaining products through their production (the so-called producing economy).

4. Eneolithic (3 thousand years ago - 2 thousand years BC) Copper-Stone Age, the era of transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age.

5. The Bronze Age (2 thousand years ago - 1 thousand years BC) - a historical and cultural period characterized by the spread of bronze in the advanced cultural centers of metallurgy and its transformation into a leading material for the production of tools and weapons.

6. Iron Age

The oldest stage in the history of mankind.

Isolation of a person from the animal world. Anthropogenesis.

Anthropogenesis it is customary to call the part of biological evolution that led to the appearance of the species Homo sapiensseparated from great apes and placental mammals. It is believed that the closest common ancestor of man and anthropomorphic apes was the group driopithecus (tree monkeys), inhabited 25-30 million years ago. About 25 million years ago, the Driopithecus was divided into two branches, which later led to the emergence of two families: pongid, or anthropomorphic monkeys (gibbon, gorilla, orangutan, chimpanzee), and hominids (humans).

Tab. 1.1... The main stages of human evolution.

Time boundaries

Stages of anthropogenesis

Characteristic features of development

40 thousand years ago

Stage neoanthrope (Cro-Magnon). Homo sapiens

Formation of the image of a modern person. The emergence of society. Domestication of plants and animals

200-500 thousand years ago

Stage paleoanthropus (Neanderthal). Neanderthal man

The volume of the brain is 1200-1400 cm 3. High culture of making tools. Improving speech and tribal relations

1-1.3 million . years ago

Stage archanthropus (pithecanthropus). Homo erectus (Pithecanthropus - Java; Sinanthropus - China, Atlanthropus - Africa, Heidelberg man - Europe)

The brain volume is 800-1200 cm 3. Formation of speech. Mastering fire

2-2.5 million years ago

Skillful man

The transitional stage to the formation of a type of modern man. Brain volume 500 - 800 cm 5. Making the first tools of labor (pebble culture)

9 million years ago

Stage protantropus. Australopithecus - predecessors of humans

Transitional form of monkey to man. Erect. Use of primitive "tools" (sticks, stones, bones). Further development of herd behavior

25 million years ago

Common ancestors of great apes and humans - driopithecus

Arboreal lifestyle, herd

Our ancient ancestors were grouped in human herds (original communities) numbering from 20 to 40 people. This number of individuals in a herd is most beneficial for human survival as a biological species. Fewer herd members could not cope with the harsh conditions of the surrounding life. The main occupations at that time were hunting or gathering, i.e. assigning business type. While the men were in search of food, the women took care of the children, whose survival was also necessary for the continued existence of the herd; women were also responsible for keeping the fire going. A larger number of individuals in a herd is also impractical, because as the herd grows, it becomes more difficult to manage. People lived as one big family, jointly earning food and taking care of common children. Relationships between men and women were most likely disordered - promiscuity. If the number of the herd increased, then it was divided by two.

However, gradually people begin to notice that fewer and fewer healthy offspring are born in their society, and therefore, the herd becomes less viable. This was due to close relatives having sex. Therefore, there is gradually a ban on members of the same herd entering into a relationship - exogamy. With the advent of exogamy, there appears and tribal community... Every clan community had to maintain friendly relations with other clan communities with whom it exchanged spouses. There have always been two or more communities nearby. The women of the community had the right to men from the neighboring community, but not to their own. Likewise, men had the right to women only in the neighboring community. At that time, the social structure was based on the power of women, i.e. matriarchy prevailed. Children born of group marriages of spouses from friendly communities lived in the mother's community, because it was not always possible to establish the father. But in this case, there is a danger of the connection between the father and the daughter, which may again lead to the birth of unhealthy offspring. Then the division into age groups was adopted. Gradually, more and more restrictions were introduced into marriage until it becomes monogamous and produces the largest number of healthy children. By that time, cattle breeding became the main occupation of people, and a little later, agriculture, i.e. the type of economy from appropriating evolves into producing. People kept together in a large clan community until they had perfect tools for cultivating the land, and while this activity required joint efforts.

With the advent of a plow with an iron share, an iron ax, a shovel, a bow and arrow, the tribal community is replaced neighborly. People live in smaller groups, but some of the physical activities (clearing arable land) are carried out jointly by several neighboring communities.

Since, when earning a livelihood, people become more and more independent and need less of their neighbors, then the earned already remains within the same family. Thus, private property begins to emerge, which must be protected. In this regard, the stronger physically become stronger economically. They can afford to hire labor to meet their needs. In connection with the growth of income, it becomes necessary to protect them, that is, to employ an army. Thus, the first states began to form. We will look at this process in more detail in the following chapters.

Early civilizations

Ancient world - the period in the history of mankind between the prehistoric period and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Europe. The period began with the emergence of writing. The duration of the written period of history is approximately 5-5.5 thousand years, starting from the appearance of cuneiform among the Sumerians. The end of the Ancient period is the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 under the blows of barbarian troops and the subsequent sharp decline in culture and living standards of people.

Consider a few of the oldest known civilizations. While people were still weak and wild, they settled in the most climatically favorable conditions. This explains the appearance of the first civilizations in the river valleys in the warm climate of the East. The river provided nutrition to the human herd at the beginning of evolution (and then to the community and proto-states). The warm climate promoted human settlement and survival. However, the same river required significant efforts, both physical and intellectual. A person had to solve difficult tasks. How to save yourself from annual floods? How to protect yourself from the raids of neighbors who came along the same river? How can a river be made to irrigate a large soil? How to pass on your knowledge to descendants? Solving these issues, people created calendars, built protective structures and an irrigation system, created writing.

Life required the efforts of every member of society, therefore collectivism is characteristic of Eastern civilization. The collective could not afford anyone to evade their duties, so the system of punishment was cruel, the power was despotism. The hot climate made it impossible to work all day; darkness did not allow to work at night. The short interval when it was possible to do something was replaced by a period of forced inaction. Therefore, an oriental person is characterized by contemplation, a mood for reflection. As a result of these reflections, scientific discoveries were born that could facilitate work in short hours of coolness.

The Ancient East is a rather broad concept. From the point of view of a medieval European, the East is everything except Europe. Thus, the East includes such diverse countries and cultures as Islamic, China, India, Indochina, as well as the northern tip of Africa.

Mesopotamia

Mesopotamia (Two-Vire, Mesopotamia, Greek Μεσοποταμία) is the area between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, on the territory of modern Iraq, one of the cradles of Eurasian civilization.

Mesopotamia

Several states were located on the territory between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers at different times. The largest and most famous are Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia.

Sumer

The Sumerians are the people who inhabited the Southern Mesopotamia (between the Euphrates and the Tigris in the south of advanced Iraq) at the very beginning of the historical period. The Sumerians are likely to have discovered a wheel, burnt bricks, irrigation systems and beer.

The oldest known writing system is considered to be the Sumerian writing system, which later developed into cuneiform. Cuneiform writing is a system of message in which symbols are squeezed out with a reed stick (stylus) on a plate made of raw clay.

Sumerian cuneiform

It is not known for certain where the Sumerians came from, but when they appeared in Mesopotamia, people were already living there. The tribes that inhabited Mesopotamia in ancient times lived on the islands, towering among the swamps. They built their settlements on artificial earth embankments. By draining the surrounding swamps, they created the oldest artificial irrigation system.

The disunity of the city-states created a problem with the exact dating of events in Ancient Sumer. The fact is that each city-state had its own chronicles. Approximately the history of Sumer can be dated as follows:

2900 - 2316 BC - the heyday of the Sumerian city-states
2316 - 2200 BC - the unification of the Sumerian under the rule of the Akkadian dynasty (the Semitic tribes of the northern part of the Southern Mesopotamia adopted the Sumerian culture)
2200 - 2112 BC - Interregnum. Period of fragmentation and invasions of nomads - Kutii
2112 - 2003 BC - Sumerian Renaissance, culture flourishing
2003 BC - the fall of Sumer and Akkad under the onslaught of the Amorites (Elamites). Anarchy
1792 - the rise of Babylon at Hammurabi (Old Babylonian kingdom)

Assyria

The Assyrian Empire existed for over a thousand years, starting from the 17th century BC. e. and before its destruction in the 7th century BC. e. (about 609 BC) Media and Babylonia.

Assyria, an ancient state on the territory of modern Iraq. Ashur was the core of Assyria. The ethnic composition of its primary population is unknown, by 2000 BC. e. the bulk of the inhabitants were Akkadian Semites.

The most ancient Assyria was characterized by a self-governing rural and urban community (alu), which had a periodically redistributed land fund, which was directly owned by home communities (bitu). The nobility, who was part of the trading companies, profited from the caravan trade. The cities that later formed the core of the Assyrian state (Nineveh, Ashur, Arbela, etc.), until the 15th century. BC, apparently, did not represent a single political or even ethnic whole. One of the most important items of intermediary trade in the II millennium BC. were fabrics and ores, and its central points were Ashur, Nineveh and Arbela. Gradually, the communal system is decaying, the population is stratified. Some of them fall into bondage and are forced to incur obligations in favor of the richer tribesmen.

In the 18th century. Ashur and adjacent cities were subordinate to the Babylonian king Hammurabi, and in the 16-15 centuries. - to the kings of Mitanni. The ruler of Ashur Ashuruballit I [late 15th - early 14th centuries] managed to create a strong state and subordinate Babylonia to his influence. His descendants adopted the title of "kings of Assyria". In the 14-13th centuries. they managed to conquer Northern Mesopotamia and seize the supply routes to Babylonia. The Assyrian rulers were highly educated people. Libraries were created in their palaces. The most famous of them is the library of King Ashurbanapal. It was discovered during excavations in Nineveh.

From the end of the 9th century. in Assyria, a crisis began associated with the devastation of agricultural areas during wars, as well as civil wars between the party of the priesthood and the privileged trade and service nobility and the military party.

The military-technical achievements of Assyria have ceased to be its monopoly. At the end of the 7th century. the coalition of Babylonia and Media defeated Assyria, destroyed its main cities and destroyed (626-605) the Assyrian state. The Assyrian nobility was slaughtered during the war, the rest of the population mixed with the Arameans of Mesopotamia.

The so-called "Middle Assyrian laws" are a very interesting cultural, historical and everyday monument of the era.

The laws are grouped in accordance with the subject of regulation into very large "blocks", each of which is dedicated to a special tablet, for "subject" is understood in the Middle Assyrian laws extremely broadly. So, Tab. And (fifty-nine paragraphs) is devoted to various aspects of the legal status of a free woman - "a man's daughter", "a man's wife", a widow, etc., as well as a harlot and a slave. This also includes various offenses committed by or against a woman, marriage, property relations between spouses, rights to children, etc. In other words, a woman acts here both as a subject of law, and as its object, and as a criminal, and as a victim. "At the same time" this also includes actions committed by a "woman or man" (murder in someone else's house; witchcraft), as well as cases of sodomy. Such a grouping, of course, is much more convenient, but its drawbacks are also obvious: theft, for example, appears in two different tablets, false accusations and false denunciations also fall into different tablets; the same fate befell the rules concerning inheritance. However, these shortcomings are obvious only from our modern point of view. New, in comparison with the Laws of Hammurabi, is also the extremely widespread use of public punishments - flogging and "royal work", i.e. a kind of hard labor (in addition to monetary compensation for the victim). This phenomenon is unique for such early antiquity and can be explained both by the unusually high development of legal thought and by the preservation of community solidarity, which considered many offenses, especially in the field of land relations or against the honor and dignity of free citizens, as affecting the interests of the entire community. On the other hand, the Middle Assyrian laws, as already noted, also contain archaic features. These include the laws according to which the murderer is handed over to the "master of the house", ie. the head of the victim's family. The "owner of the house" can do with him at his discretion: kill or release him, taking a ransom from him (in more developed legal systems, ransom for murder is not allowed). Such a mixture of archaic features with features of a relatively high development is also characteristic of the Middle Assyrian society itself, as it is reflected in the Middle Assyrian laws.

Babylonia

There are many people who would not have heard of the Babylonian pandemonium or one of the wonders of the world in the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Both of these grandiose buildings were in Babylonia.

According to biblical tradition, the inhabitants of Ancient Babylon set out to get to heaven and for this purpose they began to build a high tower. Then, according to the Bible, "all people on earth had one language and the same words." The angry God confused their language so that they ceased to understand each other, and chaos ensued. This legend enables us to draw conclusions about the life of the ancient Babylonians. If there are legends about such monumental buildings, then the inhabitants of this area were excellent architects and builders. If we are talking about the separation of languages, we can conclude about the multinational composition of the state, as well as the fact that these diverse peoples did not find a common language among themselves.

Tower of babel

The Hanging Gardens of Semiramis are one of the Seven Wonders of the World. The correct name of this structure is the Hanging Gardens of Amitis: this was the name of the wife of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, for whose sake the gardens were created.

According to legend, at the beginning of the 6th century BC. King Nebuchadnezzar II ordered the creation of hanging gardens for one of his wives, Amyits, who yearned for her homeland in the mountainous part of Iran in the plains of Babylonia. Then where does the name Semiramis come from ”? There is a Greek legend, transmitted by Herodotus and Ctesias, about the creation of "Hanging Gardens" in Babylon in honor of Babylon. According to legend, the king of Babylon Shamshiadat V fell in love with the Assyrian Amazon queen Semiramis. In her honor, he built a huge structure, consisting of an arcade - a series of arches stacked on top of each other. On each floor of such an arcade, earth was poured and a garden with many rare trees was laid out. Among the plants of amazing beauty, fountains gurgled, and bright birds sang. The gardens of Semiramis were through and multi-storey. This gave them lightness and a fabulous look.

Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

Babylonia, or the Babylonian kingdom, is an ancient kingdom in the south of Mesopotamia (the territory of modern Iraq), which arose at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. and lost its independence in 539 BC. e .. The capital of the kingdom was the city of Babylon, from which it received its name. The Semitic people of the Amorites, the founders of Babylonia, inherited the culture of the previous kingdoms of Mesopotamia - Sumer and Akkad. The state language of Babylonia was the written Semitic Akkadian language, and the Sumerian language, which had become obsolete and not related to it, remained for a long time as a cult language.

The heyday of Babylonia is associated with the name of King Hammurabi.

King Hammurabi receives laws from the sun god Shamash (relief of the upper part of the pillar of the Code of Laws)

The basis of the well-being of the inhabitants of Babylonia was agriculture. Taking care of the harvest, they rehabilitated old and laid new irrigation systems. However, due to the salinization of lands, typical for irrigation in climates with little rainfall, the yield gradually decreased. Agriculture remained largely communal. Having lost land for debts, a person was deprived of the whole complex of civil rights, moreover, he could no longer practice the most important cult of ancestors. During the reign of Hammurabi, the decay of the rural community and the conversion into slavery for debt had already taken on a significant character. From the laws of Hammurabi it is clear that slavery has lost its former patriarchal character.

The rise of Babylon led to its transformation into the largest religious center: the local god took the place of the head of the Sumerian-Akkadian pantheon. The New Year festivities held here, during which the king touched the hands of Marduk, were the culmination of the cult and the recognition of the divinity of kingship.

In the 7th century. BC e. The Assyrians destroyed Babylon twice (689 and 648 BC), but, taking advantage of the weakening of Assyria, the governor of Babylon, a Chaldean by origin, in 626 proclaimed the separation of Babylonia from Assyria and, together with the king of Media, divided the territory of the Assyrian kingdom. Nabopalasar became the founder of the New Babylonian kingdom, the first of the Chaldean dynasty. His son, whose forty-year reign was a time of great territorial gains, is the last significant ruler on the Babylonian throne.

Our story about Babylon began with the legend of the most notable architectural structures, and it will end with the legend of the fall of a powerful state.

Belshazzar was the last Chaldean ruler of Babylon, the son of Nebuchadnezzar. According to the Bible, on the night of the capture of Babylon by the Persians at the last feast arranged by Belshazzar, he sacrilegiously used sacred vessels, taken by his father from the Jerusalem temple, for food and drink. In the midst of the fun, the words inscribed by a mysterious hand appeared on the wall: “mene, mene, tekel, uparsin”. The Prophet Daniel interpreted the inscription, translated from Aramaic, meaning: "Numbered, numbered, weighed, divided" - and deciphered them as a message from God to Belshazzar, predicted an imminent death to him and his kingdom. Belshazzar died that very night.

Persian kingdom

Persia is the ancient name of a country in Southwest Asia, which has been officially called Iran since 1935.

In ancient times, Persia became the center of one of the greatest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to the river. Ind. It included all the previous empires - Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Hittites. The later empire of Alexander the Great almost did not include territories that had not previously belonged to the Persians, while it was smaller than Persia under King Darius.

Since its inception in the 6th century. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the ancient world.

In 553 BC. Cyrus II the Great, Achaemenides, ruler of Parsa, raised a revolt against the Medes king Astyages, the son of Cyaxar, as a result of which a powerful alliance of the Medes and Persians was created. In 539 BC. Cyrus occupied Babylonia, and by the end of his reign expanded the borders of the state from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern outskirts of the Iranian Highlands, making Pasargadae, a city in southwestern Iran, as the capital.

Darius (ruled from 522 to 485 BC) - the greatest of the Persian kings, he combined the talents of a ruler, builder and commander. Under him, the northwestern part of India came under the rule of Persia up to the Indus River and Armenia to the Caucasus Mountains. Darius divided the country into regions - satrapies, which were ruled by officials - satraps.

Eastern Mediterranean.

In the east of the Mediterranean Sea, different climatic conditions developed, therefore the civilizations that were developing in this region were significantly different from the river ones. The ability to engage in arable farming was limited due to the lack of good land, but those that were available could still be used quite intensively, since the sea winds brought abundant rains. Gardening predominated here, olives, dates, and grapes were cultivated.

Phoenicia

Some researchers suggest that the first inhabitants of Phenicia spoke a non-Semitic language. However, already in the III millennium BC, according to the testimony of Egyptian sources, Semitic tribes lived here.

The ancient Phoenicians were also engaged in fishing, which is natural for the sea people. It is no coincidence that the name of one of the Phoenician cities is Sidon, which means “fishing place”. The forests of mountainous Lebanon, which abounded in cedar and other valuable species, represented a great wealth for the country.

The name "Phoenician" is found already in the Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions of the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. in the form of "fenech". Later, the ancient Greeks used the word “phoinikes”, which meant “reddish”, “swarthy”. This is where the name of the country comes from.

Another version interprets the name of the state from the Greek. phοινως - "purple", possibly associated with the production of purple paint from a special type of mollusks that lived off the coast of Phenicia, which was one of the main industries of local residents.

One of the most significant achievements of the Phoenicians was the invention of alphabetic writing. The Phoenician scribes actually brought the discovery of the Egyptians to its logical conclusion. As you know, the Egyptians created 24 consonant signs, but they also preserved hundreds of syllabic signs and signs denoting whole concepts.

Ancient Palestine -historical region in Asia Minor, located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Syria.

Here, in ancient times, agriculture developed significantly. A large trade route from Egypt to Syria passed through this area. The Saronian lowland, which was sometimes called the "Garden of Eden", was especially distinguished for its fertility. Some of the interior regions of Western Palestine are no less fertile. Such is the Jericho Plain, perfectly irrigated by Wadi Kelt.

Archaeological excavations indicate that people lived in Palestine already in the era of the ancient Stone Age.

Biblical traditions have preserved distant and vague information about the tribes that in ancient times inhabited the territory of Palestine.

On the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, south of Tire, lived the Aegean tribe of the Philistines (in Hebrew Pelishtim), who gave the name to the country Palestine (in Hebrew Peleshet, in Ancient Egyptian Peleset).

Approximately three and a half thousand years ago, nomadic Semitic tribes came to the land of Canaan, who had previously lived across the Euphrates River, then crossed it and roamed the Arabian desert. These tribes called themselves "the people of Israel". Other peoples called them "Ibrim" or "Jews", which probably meant "who crossed the river" or "who came from beyond the river." There is every reason to believe that the name of the Khabiri tribe is identical with the biblical name of the Hebrew tribe (Ibrim), as well as with the ancient Egyptian word "aperu", which the Egyptians used in the New Kingdom to denote prisoners captured in Palestine during their campaigns of conquest in Syria

Let's remember the biblical lines about how Moses led his people out of the land of Egypt and led them to the Promised Land. The 40-year wandering in the desert was not accidental either. First, during the long wanderings, the people's faith in that was strengthened. That only God can help them in a difficult life situation. Secondly, the people have become one whole. During this period, 2 generations of people were born. Communicating only in the circle of their national group. Thirdly, a free generation appeared that did not know slavery, and therefore, it will be able to live in new conditions and not allow itself to be conquered by any other tribe.

From the point of view of considering the formation of statehood among the ancient Jews, the legends about David and Goliath and about Solomon are interesting.

Goliath was a Philistine warrior who was distinguished by extraordinary strength and enormous growth - 6 cubits with a span or 2 meters 89 centimeters (1 cubit \u003d 42.5 cm, 1 inch \u003d 22.2 cm). The Philistine giant was dressed in scaly armor weighing approximately 57 kilograms (5000 shekels of copper, 1 shekel \u003d 11.4 g) and copper knee pads, on his head was a copper helmet, in his hands a copper shield. Goliath carried a heavy spear, the tip alone weighing 600 shekels of iron (6.84 kg), and a large sword.

David had no armor at all, and his only weapon was a sling. The Philistine giant considered it an insult to him that a young man, still a boy, came out to fight him. Goliath and David were chosen by their fellow tribesmen for single combat, which was to decide the outcome of the battle: the winner in the duel won the victory for his side. During the battle, David kills the giant Goliath. For this, his fellow tribesmen elect him as their king.

No less interesting is the life story of the son of David, the legendary king Solomon. Solomon is the tenth son of King David. When the time came for his father to die, he bequeathed the throne to Solomon, as the most capable, the most intelligent among many of his children. "And the trumpets sounded, and all the people cried out, Let King Solomon live."

During the reign of Solomon, the Jerusalem Temple was built in Jerusalem - the main shrine of Judaism.

After his accession to the throne, Solomon made a great sacrifice to the Lord, and the Lord appeared to him at night and asked: "What can I give you?" The young king did not want anything for himself, he did not need either fame or wealth, he asked only one thing - to give him a reasonable, kind heart, in order to justly judge and rule the numerous people of Israel. The Lord promised.

However, at the end of his life, Solomon renounced God and began building pagan temples. For this, God was angry with him and promised many hardships to the people of Israel, but after the end of the reign of Solomon. Thus, the entire reign of Solomon passed quite calmly.

Ancient Egypt

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into five periods, during which 30 pharaonic dynasties ruled: Early, Ancient, Middle, New and Late kingdoms (III-I millennium BC). Pharaohs were considered the embodiment of the supreme god Horus on earth. The first pharaoh was Menes, who united Upper and Lower Egypt.

During the period of the Old Kingdom, the deification of the pharaohs, who bore the title "Son of the Sun", reached its climax. The symbol of their greatness was the construction of giant pyramids - the tombs of the pharaohs.

The Egyptian pyramids are the greatest architectural monuments of Ancient Egypt, among which one of the "seven wonders of the world" is the pyramid of Cheops (Khufu).

The pyramids are huge pyramidal stone structures that were used as tombs for the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt. The word "pyramid" is Greek. According to some researchers, a large pile of wheat became the prototype of the pyramid. According to other scholars, this word comes from the name of the pyramidal funeral cake. A total of 118 pyramids were discovered in Egypt.

During the period of construction of the pyramids, the time of troubles begins, the weakening of the power of the pharaohs, the collapse of Egypt into warring semi-independent principalities (nomes). During the Middle Kingdom, the country reunited, but it was shaken by uprisings of slaves and urban poor. Weakened by the uprisings, Egypt was captured by wild Asian tribes - the Hyksos. Having inflicted damage on civilization, they simultaneously introduced the Egyptians to their military equipment: bronze weapons and chariots with horses. The pharaohs of the XVIII dynasty managed to expel the Hyksos and create a grandiose power, covering, in addition to Egypt itself, the entire modern Middle East, part of Libya, and Namibia.

During the reign of Ramses II, Egypt expanded even more, and the successful conqueror built new cities, canals and giant temples. The successors of Ramses II fought a lot, but unsuccessfully and weakened the country, which at the end of the kingdom became the prey of foreign conquerors.

The Libyans were the first to invade Egypt, followed by the Ethiopians and Assyrians. The last period of Egyptian independence ended in the 6th century BC. capture by the mighty Persian kingdom. In the 4th century BC. Persia itself fell into decay and, together with Egypt, fell under the blows of the troops of Alexander the Great. The commander Alexandra Ptolemy received Egypt after the collapse of the Macedonian state. For Egypt, a new period began - Hellenism, closely associated with the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.

In ancient Egypt, the family was considered a great value. Women were respected in society. They had the right to property, they could go to court. There were even women rulers, which is not typical for the countries of the East. One of the most famous female pharaohs was Hatshepsut.

Hatshepsut, the granddaughter of the progenitor of the dynasty, Queen Ahmos-Nofretari, was the daughter and chosen successor of Thutmose I, the pharaoh who restored Egyptian influence in Palestine and Syria. Hatshepsut's reign began after the death of her father (c. 1525 BC), although her sickly half-brother and husband Thutmose II was considered pharaoh. After about seven years, Thutmose II died, and Hatshepsut appropriated the regalia of the pharaoh - a beard and crown. Her young stepson Thutmose III married the queen's young daughter, Hatshepsut II, and became her junior co-ruler.

Sources consider the most important deed of Hatshepsut's grandiose journey by sea and land to a rich and refined country called "Punt", or "God's land" (its biblical parallel is the story of Solomon's visit to the Queen of Sheba, who in the story about Joseph is called the ruler of Egypt and Ethiopia) ... The memorial temple of Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri, in which she left a description of her trip to Punt, perhaps the greatest of the masterpieces of Egyptian architecture. Its builder Senmut was the queen's closest advisor and mentor to her youngest daughter Nefrura. After 22 years on the throne of the pharaohs, Hatshepsut was overthrown by Thutmose III. It is not known whether she was killed or (as the Ethiopian tradition tells it) was exiled. Her tomb does not contain a burial place, as does Senmut's tomb located nearby. By order of Thutmose III, the front part of the statues of Hatshepsut was chipped off, and some of the inscriptions with her biography were also destroyed.

Queen Hatshepsut in the form of a sphinx.

In ancient Egypt, there was no one common religion, but a wide variety of local cults dedicated to certain deities. Most of them were genotheistic in nature (focusing on worshiping one deity while recognizing others), therefore, the Egyptian religion is considered polytheistic.

The religion of Egypt has traveled over 3000 years a long path of development from fetishism and totemism to polytheism and monotheistic thinking. In Egypt, the concept of monotheism was first formulated - Pharaoh Akhenaten undertook an attempt at religious reform, the purpose of which was to centralize Egyptian cults around the sun god Aton.

In different periods, the most revered were the deities of Ra and later identified with him Amon, Osiris, Isis, Set, Ptah, Anubis.

- Sumer

- Sumer

- Assyria

- Assyria

- Babylonia

- Babylonia

- Babylonia

- Persian kingdom

- persia

- Phenicia

- Palestine

- Legends

- Legends

- Egypt

- Egypt

- Egypt

Ancient civilization

Ancient civilization is an ancient civilization belonging to the Western type.

The ancestor of the Greeks, according to legends, was the king of Hellen, therefore the Greeks themselves called themselves Hellenes, and the country Hellas.

Ancient civilization begins to form on the forks of the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization, which perished as a result of natural disasters.

As we can see on the map, there are no large rivers in Greece that contributed to the development of their agriculture. But in this area there are suitable conditions for cattle breeding and winemaking. The proximity to the sea made it possible to contact with a large number of other peoples, and therefore fortified city walls appear to protect against enemy raids, and for the conduct of trade contributed to the development of crafts. Thus, the Greek community developed not as an agricultural one, but as an urban one. However, the cities did not unite into a single state, but existed independently, only occasionally creating temporary alliances. This type of independent city of the state is called the policy. The population of the policy was about 10 thousand people, including slaves, but there were also large policies, in which up to 300 thousand inhabitants lived. Athens and Sparta can be considered an example of such large cities.

Only indigenous men were the full inhabitants of the policy. They had the right to property and political participation. The National Assembly of the citizens of the polis passed laws and elected senior officials from among its members. If a person seized power in the state illegally, for example, by military means, bypassing the decision of the demos (the population of the polis), then such a person was called a tyrant. However, each city-state had its own nuances of political life. Let's take a closer look at the state structure of Athens and Sparta.

Athenian democracy.

Demos is the people, therefore democracy is the rule of the people.

The inhabitants of Athens were divided into 4 unequal categories: the Athenians - had all the rights; Meteki - Greeks from other polis - did not have only political rights; foreigners - could only trade, had no political rights and could not acquire property; slaves are completely powerless.

Power in Athens belonged to the popular assembly, which was elected by the council of elders, as well as 9 archons - the highest officials.

However, over time, many impoverished citizens of the polis lost their political rights, while falling into long-term slavery. This caused popular discontent. To carry out reforms to overcome it was given to the archon Solon, who abolished debt slavery, having bought the Athenian slaves at the expense of the state. Under him, the population of the policy was divided into 4 categories according to property qualifications. Political rights of a person and his place in the army depended on the category.

Cleisthenes' reforms are also interesting. Under him, a law on ostracism came into force - a special type of court when a person could be expelled from the city if 10,000 citizens voted for it. The names of objectionable fellow citizens had to be written on clay tablets (ostracas) - hence the name of the court.

Oligarchy in Sparta.

When it comes to Sparta, we think of the 300 Spatran heroes. Indeed, Sparta is a state of warriors. The citizens of the city were considered shameful to engage in anything other than war or preparation for war. Therefore, in the entire history of Sparta, not a single scientist, philosopher or thinker has produced. Therefore, while the rest of Greece was at a fairly primitive level of development, Sparta flourished through successful military campaigns.

Oligarchy is the power of a limited number of people (these can be noble people, rich people or the military). The population of Sparta was divided into the indigenous inhabitants of the Spartisians; periekov (literally "living around") - the population of the surrounding lands, who paid tribute to Sparta for protection; and helots - slaves. According to the laws of Lycurgus, all the inhabitants of Sparta lived equally modestly, gold and silver coins were abolished.

Sparta was ruled by 2 kings, whose power was inherited. The main role in the management was played by the council of elders, to which 28 gerons were elected (chosen from those who reached 60 years of age). People's Assembly (over 30 years old) - made or rejected decisions.

The Peloponnesian military alliance was formed around Sparta.

Greco-Persian Wars

The Greco-Persian Wars were a turning point in the history of Greece. Many small Greek cities, often at war with each other, were able to rally in the face of danger and not only withstood the onslaught of the most powerful Persian state, but managed, having defended their independence, go over to a counteroffensive and put a limit to the Persian aggression to the west.

In the VI century. BC. the Persians conquered many Greek city-states. The war was triggered by the help of warships provided by Athens and Eretria (on the island of Euboea) in 500 Greek city-states rebelling against Persian domination in Asia Minor. Perhaps the most famous battles of these wars are the Marathon and the Battle of Thermopylae.

Marathon (Marathon), an ancient Greek settlement on the plain of the same name in Attica (40 km north-east of Athens), in the area of \u200b\u200bwhich September 13, 490 BC. e. happened. The Greek army (11 thousand people) was built by the commander Miltiades at the entrance to the valley in the phalanx, the reinforced flanks of which were covered with wooded spurs of the mountains and carried forward with serifs, which protected them from being outflanked by the Persian cavalry. There were about 20,000 Persians.

The Battle of Marathon took place in 490 BC. e. and was crowned with complete victory for the Athenians and their allies, the Plateians. The Persians could not withstand the attacks of a closed formation of heavily armed Greek soldiers, were overturned and put to flight. Herodotus says that they left up to 6,400 corpses on the battlefield, while the Greeks lost only 192 people killed.

Immediately after the battle, a runner was sent to the city of Athens with the joyful news of the long-awaited victory. He ran to the agora and shouted "Victory!" collapsed dead to the ground. In memory of this episode, a marathon distance of 42 km 192 m was established at the Olympic Games - the distance from the battle site to the Athenian agora. However, the rest of the soldiers fled to Athens to defend the city in case of a possible attack.

Soon the Persian king Darius I dies and the temporarily attacks on Greece end.

Hostilities resumed in the spring of 480. A huge fleet and land army, consisting of both the Persians themselves and the detachments put forward by the conquered peoples that were part of the Achaemenid state, moved under the leadership of Xerxes himself. One cannot but recall the heroic feat of Tsar Leonidas and the 300 Spartans who held back the troops of Xerxes. Xerxes' troops attacked the defenders of Thermopylae many times, trying in vain to break through the defenses. But among the Greeks, there was a traitor who showed the enemies a detour mountain path. Along this path, a detachment of Persians went to the rear of the defenders of Thermopylae. When the Spartan king Leonidas, who commanded the allied forces, became aware of this, he ordered his troops to retreat, but he himself, with a detachment of Spartan soldiers of 300 people, remained in Thermopylae. The Spartans, surrounded on all sides by enemies, fought to the last man. Subsequently, a monument was erected on the grave of Leonidas and his soldiers with the inscription:

"Traveler, go, to erect to our citizens in Lacedaemono that, observing their precepts, here we have perished with bones."

Having broken through Thermopylae, the Persians poured into Central Greece. Almost all the Boeotian cities, in which the Persophilian aristocracy was strong, hastened to submit to Xerxes. Attica was devastated, Athens plundered.

09/28/480 BC there was a naval battle near the island of Salamis, as a result of which the Persian fleet was badly damaged and was forced to retreat.

After Salamis and Plataea, the war was not over yet, but its character radically changed. The threat of an enemy invasion ceased to gravitate over Balkan Greece, and the initiative passed to the Greeks. Revolts against the Persians began in the cities of the western coast of Asia Minor; the population overthrew the rulers planted by the Persians, and soon all of Ionia regained its independence.

The Greco-Persian wars continued until 449 BC, when the Persians recognized the independence of the Greek city-states in Asia Minor.

Alexander the Great

The unity of Greece was short-lived. With the outbreak of wars between the Peloponnesian and Athenian unions, Hellas weakens. Thus, the prerequisites are formed for the conquest of it by a stronger state, which became Macedonia.

When Philip II became the ruler of Macedonia, in which a people related to the Greeks lived, Hellas fell under his rule.

After Philip's death, his 20-year-old son Alexander became king.

Alexander the Great

Born in 356 BC His teacher was the Greek sage Aristotle. In the spring of 334 BC. e. Alexander, at the head of the army, went on a campaign against the Persian kingdom. Alexander easily captured Syria and Phenicia. In Egypt, the priests welcomed Alexander as a liberator from the Persian yoke. The largest battle of antiquity took place in 331 BC. near the village of Gaugamela in Mesopotamia. Despite the 20-fold superiority of forces, the Persians were defeated.

Alexander liked many of the orders that he saw at the Persian court, and he began to demand from the freedom-loving Greeks the same obedience that the Persians showed to their king, for example, so that they resemble him on his knees. This caused discontent. Conspiracies are repeatedly organized against Alexander, attempts are made on the young tsar.

Alexander planned new campaigns of conquest, but did not manage to carry them out. In June 323 BC. The general dies. There are several versions of the causes of death: from sudden fever to poisoning.

After Alexander's death, his power disintegrated.

Ancient Rome

There is a legend about the founding of Rome, associated with the name of the twins Romulus and Remus. When ancient Troy died, some of the city's defenders managed to escape. Enoy stood at their head. The exhausted fugitives landed and decided to settle here. This was the coast of Italy, and the area was called Latium. The son of the Trojan Aeneas founded a city in Latium and named it Alba Longa.

Many decades have passed. In the city of Alba Long, Amulius seized power, overthrowing his brother Numitor. He was afraid of the revenge of the descendants - the children and grandchildren of the deposed brother. To protect himself from this danger, the cruel Amulius ordered the death of Numitor's son, and made his daughter Rhea Sylvia become a priestess of the goddess Vesta - a vestal who had no right to marry. Soon Rhea Sylvia had two twin boys. Their father, as the legend says, was the god of war Mars.

When Amulius found out about this, he was angry and frightened and ordered to execute Rhea Sylvia, and throw her children into the Tiber. The slave put the children in a basket and carried them to the river. At this time, the Tiber overflowed and the water continued to arrive. The slave was afraid to enter the water. He put the basket on the shore, near the water, and left.

Soon the flood ended. The water fell asleep, and the twin fell out of the basket to the ground and began to scream. This cry was heard by the she-wolf who came to the river to drink.

She fed the children with her milk. Then the king's shepherd saw the twins, picked them up and raised them. He named one of the twins Romulus and the other Remus.

Each of the brothers formed a small detachment for Himself. In one of the skirmishes with the shepherds of Numitor, Rem was captured. He was brought to Numitor. He was amazed at the courageous appearance of the young man and became interested in his origin. Rem answered Numitor's questions: “Before, we, the twins, considered ourselves the sons of the king's shepherd, but now, when the question of our life and death is being decided, I can tell you something very important. Our birth is shrouded in mystery. I have heard incredible things about our upbringing and early childhood: we were fed by animals and birds, to which we were thrown to eat - a she-wolf gave us her milk, woodpeckers carried food to us when we lay on the bank of a large river. "

Numitor began to guess that before him was his grandson, one of Rhea Sylvia's children. Soon his guess turned into confidence. The shepherd who raised the twins, learning that Rem had been captured by Numitor, revealed to Romulus the secret of their birth. Romulus hastened to help his brother. He moved with his detachment to Alba Long. On the way to him, many residents of the city began to run, hating the cruel, insidious Amulius. In Alba Long, an uprising broke out, led by Romulus and Remus. The rebels killed Amulius. The brothers returned power to their grandfather Numitor. They themselves did not want to stay in Alba Long. Together with many people gathered around them, the brothers decided to found a new city.

However, soon a quarrel broke out between the brothers. The dispute arose over whose name the new city should be named, where to start building it, and which of them would rule in it. Romulus killed his brother. The city was named after its founder, and Romulus became its first ruler - Rex ...

This is the ancient legend that tells about the founding of the city of Rome.
Later, Roman scholars assured that they were able to accurately calculate and determine the date of the founding of the city of Rome. This event, they said, occurred on April 21, 753 BC. e. The ancient Romans celebrated this day every year.

The history of ancient Rome is divided into three periods: royal, republican and imperial.

Tsarist period

Romulus became the first king of Rome. The population of Rome was 300 of his companions and their wives. That is why the Romans consider the family a special value. The woman's mother enjoyed great respect and rights.

The descendants of the first 300 families of Rome were called patricians (from the Latin "father"). It was the Roman nobility. The people who later moved to Rome were called plebeians. Since Rome was built according to the laws of the Greek polis, only patricians were considered full residents, plebeians did not have the right to political life, to property. The royal period ends in 510 BC, when the seventh Roman king, Tarquinius the Proud, was overthrown.

Republican period

After the overthrow of the royal power in Rome, democracy was established following the example of the Greek. The supreme governing body was considered the People's Assembly, but finally all decisions were made by the Senate. The Senate consisted of one representative from each patrician family. The National Assembly elected 2 senior officials - consuls - for a period of 2 years. In case of emergency, it was possible to appoint a dictator for six months, who had extraordinary powers.

Over time, the patrician clans became smaller, and the number of plebeians in Rome increased. Therefore, a new position appeared in the Senate - a plebeian tribune - a defender of the rights of plebeians. The tribune had the right to veto - to suspend, prohibit the decision of the People's Assembly or the Senate. Gradually, the number of plebeians in the Senate begins to grow, they become full citizens. The power of origin is replaced by the power of money.

The centuriate reform contributed a lot to this. According to this reform, the entire population of Rome (both patricians and plebeians) was divided into 5 classes, or categories, according to the property qualification, each class nominated a certain number of military units - centuria (hundreds) and received the same number of votes in the centuriate comitia. There were 193 centurias in total, of which the 1st class (property qualification of at least 100 thousand asses) exhibited 98 centurias, the 2nd (qualification 75 thousand asses) - 22 centuries, the third (qualification 50 thousand asses) - 20 centuri, 4th (qualification 25 thousand asses) - 22 centuri, 5th class (qualification 11 thousand asses) - 30 centuri, Proletarians (landless population) put up 1 century and, accordingly, had 1 vote in the national assembly. The reform was carried out at the initiative of Servius Thulia.

In the 6th - 5th centuries BC. Rome begins conquest. The Romans turned the conquered lands into provinces - the dependent lands of the Roman people. The provinces were headed by governors - officials of Rome. The campaigns of conquest increased the territory of Rome, but at the same time the ties within the republic were weakened. Rome, organized on the principle of the Greek polis, is experiencing numerous civil wars, slave revolts.

An important event was the uprising led by Spatrak.

In 74-73 BC. e. Spartak and about 70 of his followers revolted. Capturing knives in the kitchen of the gladiatorial school and weapons in its arsenals, the rebels fled to the Vesuvius caldera near Naples. There they were joined by slaves from the plantations. Over time, the number of rebels was replenished with new fugitive slaves, until, according to some statements, the size of the army did not reach 90,000 (according to other estimates, only 10,000). Spartacus defeated several Roman legions and almost crossed the Alps, but then changed the direction of his movement. According to one of the literary sources, Spartacus was killed by a soldier from Pompeii named Felix, who, after the war, laid out a mosaic of his battle with Spartacus on the wall of his house in Pompeii.

After the battle, the Romans found 3,000 unharmed legionary prisoners in the camp of the vanquished. Spartak's body, however, was never found.

Some 6,000 captured slaves were crucified along the Appian Way from Capua to Rome.

In the second civil war, three prominent Romans clashed for power: Gneus Pompey, Marcus Crassus and Julius Caesar. In 60 BC. e. they managed to conclude an alliance with each other - a triumvirate (an alliance of three husbands). The Senate was ousted from power by the triumviate. In 53 BC Crassus died. Pompey entered into an agreement with the Senate and opposed Caesar. A new civil war begins, in which Caesar defeats Pompey and becomes the sole ruler.

Julius Caesar

The Roman Empire

Caesar did not become the first emperor, because in 44 BC. was killed on his way to the Senate meeting. After his death, a struggle for power begins, in which Caesar's distant relative Guy Octavian wins. In 29 BC. he receives from the Senate and the National Assembly the title of Emperor and the title "Augustus" - exalted.

Octavian August

Although officially all the rulers of this time were titled emperors (imperatores), in history it is customary to divide the imperial period into and, when a number of emperors also demanded the title dominus - "lord".

The period of principality lasted until 193. The actual power belonged to the emperor, although formally both the senate and the national assembly existed. Many emperors (Nero, Caligula) became famous for their cruelty and abuse of power. As a result, Rome increasingly began to suffer defeats in wars, and the internal political situation in the country was aggravated. Periods of crisis alternate with periods of relative stability.

In the 3rd century, Rome begins to disintegrate. The last stage of Rome comes in 284 and is called the dominata. When the republican bodies turned into bureaucratic institutions, completely subordinate to the emperor. In the same period, relations close to feudal began to emerge. The lands are concentrated in the hands of the richest people - tycoons. Dependent peasants and slaves worked on these lands and became colonists - tenants of the land, who gave the magnates part of the harvest for the opportunity to work on their land. Colon is much more interested in the results of his labor than a slave.

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine moved the capital to the ancient city of Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople. Constantine converts to Christianity. It was during his reign in Rome that the persecution of Christians ceased. In 395 the Roman Empire falls apart into the Western Empire with the capital in Rome and the Eastern (Byzantium) with the capital in Constantinople. The Western Roman Empire ceased to exist in 476, when the German ruler Odoacer overthrew the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and sent the imperial regalia to Constantinople. This date is considered the end of Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The Eastern Roman Empire will last for almost a thousand years and will be destroyed in 1453.

- Ancient Greece

- Ancient Rome

- Ancient Rome

- Ancient Rome

Topic 1.1. The oldest stage in human history

Variants of the periodization of ancient history

The first stage in the development of mankind primitive communal systemtakes a huge period of time from the moment man was separated from the animal kingdom (about 35 million years ago) to the formation of class societies in various regions of the planet (about the 4th millennium BC). Its periodization is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools (archaeological periodization). In accordance with it, in the most ancient era, three periods are distinguished:

stone Age (from the rise of man to the 3rd millennium BC),

bronze age (from the end of the 4th to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC),

iron age(from 1 millennium BC).

In turn, the Stone Age is subdivided into old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic), New Stone Age (Neolithic) and transitional to bronze copper stone age (Eneolithic).

A number of scholars subdivide the history of primitive society into five stages, each of which differs in the degree of development of the tools of labor, the materials from which they were made, the quality of housing, and the appropriate organization of the economy1.

First stageis defined as the prehistory of the economy and material culture: from the emergence of mankind to about 1 million years ago. This is the time when the adaptation of people to the environment was not much different from obtaining a livelihood for animals. Many scientists believe that East Africa is the ancestral home of man. It is here that the bones of the first people who lived more than 2 million years ago are found during excavations.

Second phase- a primitive appropriating economy approximately I million years ago - XI millennium BC, i.e. covers a significant part of the Stone Age - Early and Middle Paleolithic.

Stage three- a developed appropriating economy. It is difficult to determine its chronological framework, since in a number of localities this period ended in the 20th millennium BC. (subtropics of Europe and Africa), in others (tropics) - continues to this day. It covers the late Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and, in some areas, the entire Neolithic.

The fourth stage -the emergence of a producing economy. In the most economically developed regions of the earth - IX-VIII thousand BC. (late Mesolithic - early Neolithic).

Fifth stage- the era of the manufacturing economy. For some areas of dry and humid subtropics - VIII-V millennium BC.

In addition to the production of tools, the material culture of ancient mankind is closely related to the creation of dwellings.

The most interesting archaeological finds of the oldest dwellings date back to the Early Paleolithic. Remains of 21 seasonal camps were found in France. In one of them, an oval stone fence was opened, which can be interpreted as the foundation of a light dwelling. Inside the dwelling there were hearths and places for making tools. In the cave of Le Lazaret (France), the remains of a shelter were found, the reconstruction of which involves the presence of supports, a roof of hide, internal partitions and two hearths in a large room. Beds are made of animal skins (fox, wolf, lynx) and algae. These findings date back to about 150 thousand years.

On the territory of the USSR, the remains of terrestrial dwellings belonging to the Early Paleolithic were found near the village of Molodovo on the Dniester. They represented an oval arrangement of specially selected large mammoth bones. Here, traces of 15 fires were found, located in different parts of the dwelling.

The primitive era of mankind is characterized by a low level of development of productive forces, their slow improvement, collective appropriation of natural resources and production results (primarily exploited territory), equitable distribution, socio-economic equality, lack of private property, exploitation of man by man, classes, states.

Analysis of the development of primitive human society shows that this development was extremely uneven. The process of separating our distant ancestors from the world of great apes was very slow.

The general scheme of human evolution is as follows:

australopithecus man;

homo erectus (early hominids: Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus);

modern human (late hominids: Neanderthals and Upper Paleolithic humans).

In practice, the appearance of the first Australopithecines marked the birth of a material culture directly related to the production of tools. It was the latter that became for archaeologists a means of determining the main stages of the development of ancient mankind.

The rich and generous nature of that period did not help to accelerate this process; only with the appearance of the harsh conditions of the ice age, with the intensification of the labor activity of primitive man in his difficult struggle for existence, new skills rapidly appear, tools are improved, new social forms are developed. Mastering fire, collective hunting for large animals, adaptation to the conditions of a melted glacier, the invention of the onion, the transition from appropriating to a productive economy (cattle breeding and agriculture), the discovery of metal (copper, bronze, iron) and the creation of a complex tribal organization of society - these are the most important stages , which mark the path of mankind in the conditions of the primitive communal system.

The rate of development of human culture gradually accelerated, especially with the transition to a productive economy. But one more feature appeared - the geographical unevenness of the development of society. Areas with an unfavorable, harsh geographic environment continued to develop slowly, while areas with a mild climate, ore reserves, etc., were rapidly advancing towards civilization.

A colossal glacier (about 100 thousand years ago), which covered half of the planet and created a harsh climate that influenced the flora and fauna, inevitably divides the history of primitive mankind into three different periods: preglacial with a warm subtropical climate, glacial and postglacial. Each of these periods corresponds to a certain physical type of a person: in the preglacial - archaeoanthropes (Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, etc.), in the glacial - paleoanthroles (Neanderthal man), at the end of the Ice Age, in the Late Paleolithic - neoanthropes, modern people.

Paleolithic... The early, middle and late stages of the Paleolithic are distinguished. IN early Paleolithic, in turn, allocate the primary, chelley1 and acheulean era.

The oldest cultural monuments were found in the caves of Le Lazaret (dating back to about 150 thousand years ago), Lyalco, Nio, Fonda de Gom (France), Altamira (Spain). A large number of items of the Chellean culture (tools) were found in Africa, especially in the Upper Nile valley, in Ternifin (Algeria), etc. The most ancient remnants of human culture on the territory of the USSR (Caucasus, Ukraine) date back to the border of the Shellian and Acheulean eras. By the Acheulean era, people settled more widely, penetrating into Central Asia, the Volga region.

On the eve of the great glaciation, man already knew how to hunt the largest animals: elephants, rhinos, deer, bison. In the Acheulean era, the settledness of hunters appears, living for a long time in one place. Complex hunting has long been an addition to simple gathering.

During this period, humanity was already sufficiently organized and equipped. Perhaps the most significant was the mastery of fire about 300-200 thousand years ago. It is not for nothing that many southern peoples (in those places where people then settled) have preserved legends about the hero who stole the heavenly fire. The myth of Prometheus, who brought people fire - lightning, reflects the largest technical victory of our very distant ancestors.

Some researchers attribute the Mousterian era to the Early Paleolithic, while others distinguish it as a special stage of the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian Neanderthals lived both in caves and in dwellings specially made of mammoth bones - chums. At this time, a person had already learned how to make fire by friction, and not only maintain a fire ignited by lightning. The basis of the economy was hunting for mammoths, bison, and deer. The hunters were armed with spears, flint points and clubs. The first artificial burials of the dead belong to this era, which testifies to the emergence of very complex ideological ideas.

It is believed that the birth of the generic organization of society can be attributed to the same time. Only by the ordering of gender relations, the emergence of exogamy2 can one explain the fact that the physical appearance of the Neanderthal began to improve and after thousands of years, by the end of the Ice Age, he turned into a neoanthrope, or Cro-Magnon - people of our modern type.

Upper (late) Paleolithic is known to us better than previous eras. Nature was still harsh, the ice age was still going on. But man was already sufficiently armed to fight for existence. The economy is becoming complex: it was based on hunting for large animals, but the beginnings of fishing appeared, and the collection of edible fruits, grains, and roots was a serious help.

Human stone products were divided into two groups: weapons and tools (spearheads, knives, skin scrapers, flint tools for processing bone and wood). Various projectiles (darts, serrated harpoons, special spear throwers) have become widespread, allowing them to hit an animal at a distance.

According to archaeologists, the main unit of the social structure of the Upper Paleolithic was a small tribal community, numbering about a hundred people, of which twenty were adult hunters who managed the family's economy. The small round dwellings, the remains of which have been discovered, may have been adapted for a coupled family.

Finds of burials with beautiful weapons made of mammoth tusks and a large number of ornaments testify to the emergence of a cult of chiefs, clan or tribal elders.

In the Upper Paleolithic, people widely settled not only in Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia, but also in Siberia. According to scientists, America was also settled from Siberia at the end of the Paleolithic.

Upper Paleolithic art testifies to the high development of human intelligence of this era. In the caves of France and Spain, colorful images dating back to this time have been preserved. Such a cave was also discovered by Russian scientists in the Urals (Kalova Cave) with images of a mammoth, rhino, and a horse. Paintings on the walls of caves and carvings on bones made by Ice Age artists give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe animals they hunted. This was probably due to various magical rites, spells and dances of hunters in front of painted animals, which was supposed to ensure a successful hunt.

Elements of such magical actions have survived even in modern Christianity: a prayer for rain with sprinkling water on fields is an ancient magical act dating back to primitiveness.

Of particular note is the cult of the bear, dating back to the Mousterian era and allowing us to speak of the birth of totemism. Bone figures of women are often found at Paleolithic sites near hearths or dwellings. The women are very portly and mature. Obviously, the main idea of \u200b\u200bsuch figurines is fertility, vitality, continuation of the human race, personified in the woman - the mistress of the house and hearth.

The abundance of female images found in the Upper Paleolithic sites of Eurasia allowed scientists to conclude that the cult of the female progenitor originated matriarchy. With a very primitive relationship between the sexes, children knew only their mothers, but they did not always know their fathers. Women guarded the fire in hearths, dwellings, children; women of the older generation could keep track of kinship and monitor the observance of exogamous prohibitions so that children from close relatives were not born, the undesirability of which was obviously already realized. The prohibition of incest gave its positive results - the descendants of the former Neanderthals became healthier and gradually turned into people of the modern type.

Mesolithic About ten millennia BC, a huge glacier, reaching 1000-2000 meters in height, began to melt intensively, the remnants of this glacier have survived to this day in the Alps and on the Scandinavian mountains. The transitional period from the glacier to the modern climate is called the conventional term "Mesolithic", i.e. "Middle Stone" age - the interval between the Paleolithic and Neolithic, occupying approximately three to four millennia.

The Mesolithic is clear evidence of the strong influence of the geographic environment on the life and evolution of mankind. Nature has changed in many respects: the climate has warmed, the glacier has melted, deep rivers have flowed southward, large areas of land previously covered by the glacier have been gradually freed, vegetation has renewed and developed, mammoths and rhinos have disappeared.

In connection with all this, the stable, well-established life of the Paleolithic mammoth hunters was disrupted, and other forms of economy had to be created. Using wood, man created a bow with arrows. This significantly expanded the hunting object: along with deer, elk, horses, they began to hunt various small birds and animals. The great ease of such hunting and the ubiquity of game made the strong communal collectives of mammoth hunters unnecessary. Mesolithic hunters and fishermen roamed the steppes and forests in small groups, leaving behind traces of temporary camps.

The warmer climate made it possible to revive gathering. Gathering of wild cereals turned out to be especially important for the future, for which wooden and bone sickles with flint blades were even invented. An innovation was the ability to create cutting and stabbing tools with a large number of sharp pieces of flint inserted into the edge of a wooden object.

Probably at this time people got acquainted with the movement on water on logs and rafts and with the properties of flexible rods and fibrous bark of trees.

The domestication of animals began: the hunter-archer followed the game with the dog; killing wild boars, people left broods of pigs for feeding.

Mesolithic - the time of the resettlement of mankind from south to north. Moving through the forests along the rivers, the Mesolithic man passed all the space that was freed from the glacier, and reached the then northern edge of the Eurasian continent, where he began to hunt sea animals.

The art of the Mesolithic is significantly different from the Paleolithic: there was a weakening of the leveling communal principle and the role of an individual hunter increased - in the rock carvings we see not only animals, but also hunters of men with bows and women awaiting their return.

Lecture 2:
The oldest stage in human history.
1. The essence of man. Anthropogenesis.
2. Stages of anthropogenesis and settlement
people on Earth.
3. The beginning of social life. Sociogenesis.

1. The essence of man.
Man is a biopsychosocial creature:
Biological
- Homo sapiens;
- neuro-cerebral,
electrochemical
processes.
- biological
characteristics.
Mental:
- spiritual world;
- conscious,
unconscious
processes.
Social
- purchased in
society:
worldview,
values \u200b\u200bof knowledge and
dr.

Anthropogenesis - an evolutionary process of formation
physical type of a person, his initial development
work activity, speech.
Anthropology is the science of origin and evolution
human.
Man began to stand out from the animal world about 3 million years
ago, and the history of civilizations is 5 thousand years
(a long period of transition from primitiveness to
civilization).
Theories of human origin:
Human creation concept. The concept of natural
(evolutionary)
human origin.

Creation concept
Man is a creation of God, and specific questions,
the components of the creative, divine act are a mystery.

The concept of natural
(evolutionary)
origin
Author - Charles Darwin (1809-1882),
English naturalist, traveler.
It is based on the principles:
- variability,
- heredity
- natural selection.
All living things are characterized by diversity.
Representatives of the same species have differences (variability),
their children are similar to their parents (heredity).
Impact of external conditions → highlighting the necessary
signs that are hardly noticeable in the first generations, but
selection will produce two excellent breeds.

Karl Focht, Thomas Huxley and Ernst Haeckel
in 1863 put forward the idea that
"Man came from a monkey."
In humans and
modern
chimpanzee -
91% similar
genes.
In humans and
gibbon -
76% of total
genes.
In humans and
macaques -
66% of total
genes.

Anthropogenesis factors:
Biological
- variability,
- heredity,
- selection.
Climate change →
upright posture →
freeing hands + labor →
hand acquired the ability
to complex actions →
brain stimulation →
making protozoa
tools of labor.
Complication of structure
brain + necessity
act together → speech.
Natural Social
Conditions
life
ancient
ancestors
of people:
- climate,
- radiation.
- public
way of life,
- labor,
- speech,
- developed
consciousness, etc.

2. Stages of anthropogenesis and settlement of people on the Earth.
Pliocene
5.332 ml. l. -2.588 million liters back Anthropogenesis
Stone Age
Ancient stone
century - Paleolithic
Early palaeolithic
3 million liters back - end of III mil.
BC.
OK. 2.6 million liters back - 15-10
you SL. back
about 2.6 million liters - 100 thousand liters.
back
Middle Paleolithic 300-30 thousand years. back
Late Paleolithic 35–10 thousand years ago. back
Medium stone
century - mesolite
Neolithic - new
stone Age
Rudiments
sociogenesis
about 15 thousand - 6-5 thousand years before
AD
about 8th - 3rd millennium BC
Bronze Age
late 3rd millennium BC - 1 millennium BC
Iron age
from 1 millennium BC
Sociogenesis

Homo habilis -
"Skillful Man" (Australopithecus)
Epoch
On the border of the Pliocene
and early Paleolithic
No later than 2.6 million
years ago.
A place
Progressive
traits
appearance
Africa, Asia.
Height: 120-140 cm.
Skull volume: 500 600 cm
Lifestyle
Walking upright.
They settled in the rocks; built primitive
shelter. They ate meat.
Guns
Stones, sticks, animal bones

Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus
Epoch
Early palaeolithic
A place
Pithecanthropus: Africa, Mediterranean
1 million years ago
Sinanthropus: China 400 thousand years ago
Progressive
traits
appearance
Height: 150 - 160cm.
Brain volume: Pithecanthropus - 900-1000 cm;
Sinanthropus - 850-1200cm.
The forehead is low, with a brow ridge,
the chin protrusion is poorly developed.
All biological human evolution.
Lifestyle
Herds.
Used fire, dressed in skins
built primitive shelters.
Guns
Tools made of stone and bones.

Homo erectus - "Homo erectus":
Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus
Reconstruction. Smithsonian Museum
Natural History, USA.
Reconstruction. Westphalian
Museum, Germany

Neanderthal
Epoch
A place
Progressive
traits
appearance
Middle Paleolithic
Southern Europe, Western Asia.
Height: 165 cm
Build: massive.
Large head, unusual shape;
superciliary arches; protruding wide
nose, very small chin,
the neck is short, tilted forward; arms
short, paw-like.
Children are like little adults.
Lifestyle
Groups (100 people), fire for cooking
food, dressed in skins, primitive speech,
division of labor.
Tools made of stone and wood.
Guns

Neanderthal
Neanderthal.
La grotto
Chapelle-aux-Seine.
Gerasimov
M. M.
(State Historical Museum, Moscow)
Neanderthal teenager. Teshik-Tash cave
(Uzbekistan). Gerasimov M.M. Biological Museum
them. Timiryazev.

Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens). Cro-Magnon
Epoch
A place
Progressive
traits
appearance
Lifestyle
Guns
Late Paleolithic (35–40 thousand years ago).
Everywhere 30-40 thousand liters. back.
Formation of races: Caucasian (from
Cro-Magnons), Mongoloid, Negroid
(35-40 thousand years ago).
Height: 180 cm and above.
Brain volume: 1400-1900 cm³.
Wide, low face; straight nose,
protruding chin, superciliary
no roller.
Communities.
They built and decorated dwellings, speech,
clothing, animal domestication.
Various tools made of stone, wood.

Homo sapiens
(reasonable person).
Cro-Magnon /
Reconstruction by M.M.
Gerasimova

3. The beginning of social life. Sociogenesis.
Sociogenesis is a historical and evolutionary process
the emergence and formation of human society.
Primitive communal
system - the first socio-economic formation,
related to tribal
relationships.
Period:
- from the emergence of man
and society before becoming
class relations;
- mainly of the Paleolithic era,
Mesolithic and Neolithic
(archaeologically).

Stage of sociogenesis
Farm
Primal Herd Hunting,
association for
gathering
joint hunting, protection
territory (20-30
individuals).
Period
Early, middle
paleolithic.
2 million - 33 thousand liters
BC.

Stage of sociogenesis
Farm
Rod - a collective of blood
Hunting,
relatives leading
fishing,
origin from common
gathering
ancestor (common generic name).
Tribal community - collective
blood relatives with
common area and
economy.
Matriarchy - a type of generic
building, related to
maternal line.
Pair marriage (Mesolithic):
invention of the bow and arrow →
individual hunting
small animals → genus not
needed for survival.
Period
Late
paleolithic.
Mesolithic.
33-4 thousand liters. before
AD

Stage of sociogenesis
Farm
Period
Neolithic revolution
- transfer from
appropriating
farms (hunting,
gathering) to
producing
(agriculture, cattle breeding).
Patriarchy is a clan type
building, related to
male line and
paternal law.
Tribes
large
unification of genera.
Intertribal emerges
exchange and intertribal
communication.
Hoe farming,
cattle breeding
(7-4 thousand BC)
Plow farming,
cattle breeding
(4-3 thousand BC)
Neolithic
(7-3
thous.
BC.)

Stage of sociogenesis
The first division of labor -
cattle breeding is separated from
agriculture.
Language families are large
cultural communities.
The beginning of the decomposition of the generic
building (due to the emergence
wealth inequality and
private property).
Farm
Agriculture,
cattle breeding,
occurrence
crafts.
Period
Bronze
century.
Start
iron
century
(3-1 thousand to
AD)

Stage of sociogenesis
The second division of labor -
separation of craft from agriculture
(iron processing required
experience) → the emergence of a simple
commodity production (tools
for sale).
Operation - assignments
results of someone else's labor →
weakening of family ties; slavery
(from captives) → Appearance
wealth inequality and
private property → disintegration
generic organization →
neighborhood community.
The political genesis of the folding of the state begins.
Farm
Agriculture,
cattle breeding,
craft,
appearance
trade
Period
Iron
century.
1 thousand to
AD

Homework for the seminar on topic 2.
The oldest stage in human history
1. Study the materials of the lecture, literature and sources.
Prepare for test work.
Literature
2. Davydova Yu.A., Matyukhin A.V. History: a tutorial. -
Moscow: Moscow Financial and Industrial University
"Synergy", 2012. - (series "Continuing education").
Lesson 2, item 1 Primitive society.
2. Sakharov A.N. , Zagladin N.K. History since ancient times
until the end of the XIX century: textbook for the 10th grade of general education
organizations. A basic level of. - M., 2016.
2. Danilov A.A. History. Russia and the world. Antiquity. Middle Ages.
New time. Grade 10: textbook for general education
institutions. 5th ed. - M .: Education, 2011.

2. Make a detailed "dossier" (in the form of a presentation) on the ancients
ancestors of people:
1) Homo habilis - "Homo habilis" (Australopithecus)
2) Homo erectus - "Homo erectus" (archantropics:
Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus)
3) Paleoanthropus (Neanderthal).
4) Homo sapiens (modern humans) or Cro-Magnon.
It is necessary to describe:
- time of appearance,
- resettlement,
- appearance,
- achievements,
- economy (including tools),
- dwellings,
- representation,
- social organization.

The volume of the presentation is no more than 10 slides (for 1 ancient Eastern civilization).
General requirements for presentations.
I. Design:
1. The presentation must correspond to the volume specified in
assignment. The material should be brief. The presentation should be
executed in 20-24 type.
2. The presentation should not contain solid text, hyperlinks.
The text should be divided into paragraphs. Every new thought must
start with a red line.
3. The presentation should use illustrations and maps. One
the page should not contain more than 2 images. Illustration
should not be less than ¼ of the entire slide.
4. The title page of the presentation should include
information:
- presentation theme;
- Name of the student (s) who performed the work.
5. At the end of the presentation, it is necessary to indicate the sources of information,
used in the preparation of the presentation.
6. The presentation must be checked for errors,
typos.

II. Presentation presentation:
1. When preparing for a performance, you must carefully
read the text of the presentation at least 2 times.
2. Fill in the table:
Early settlements of people on the territory of modern Russia in
primitive era.
Epoch
Time
Characteristic

Currently, the historical path traversed by mankind is divided into the following segments: the primitive era, the history of the Ancient World, the Middle Ages.It should be noted that today, among scientists who study the stages of human development, there is no consensus on periodization. Therefore, there are several special periodizations, which partially reflect the nature of the disciplines, and general, i.e. historical.

Of the special periodizations, the most significant for science is archaeological, which is based on differences in tools.

The stages of development of mankind in the primitive era are determined by more than 1.5 million years. The basis for its study was the remains of ancient tools, rock paintings and burials, which were revealed during Anthropology - a science that deals with the restoration of the appearance of primitive man. In a given time period, the emergence of a person occurs, it ends with the emergence of statehood.

During this period, the following stages of human development are distinguished: anthropogenesis (evolution that ended about 40 thousand years ago and led to the emergence of the species of Homo sapiens) and sociogenesis (the formation of social forms of life).

The history of the Ancient World begins its countdown during the emergence of the first states. The periods of human development, expressed in this era, are the most mysterious. Ancient civilizations left behind monuments and architectural ensembles, examples of monumental art and painting that have survived to this day. This era dates back to the IV-III millennium BC. At this time, there was a split of society into ruled and ruled, into have-nots and haves, slavery appeared. The slave-owning system reached its apogee in the period of antiquity, when the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome rose up.

Russian and Western science attribute the collapse of the Western Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, which occurred at the end of the fifth century. At the same time, in the encyclopedia "History of Humanity", published by UNESCO, the beginning of this stage is considered a moment that appeared already in the seventh century.

In the Middle Ages, they are divided into three time periods: early (5th century - mid 11th century), high (mid 11th century - late 14th century), later (14-16th centuries).

In some sources, the civilizations of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages are not distinguished within the framework of the theoretical position on "stages of growth" and are considered as the basis of which lies

During the modern era, the formation of an industrial and capitalist civilization took place. The stages of human development at this stage are divided into several segments.

First. It originates when revolutions occur in the world aimed at overthrowing the estate system. The first of these occurred in England in the years 1640-1660.

The second period came after the Great French Revolution (1789-1794). At this time, there was a rapid growth of colonial empires, the division of labor at the international level.

The third period begins at the end of the 19th century and is characterized by rapid development that occurs due to the development of new territories.

Recent history and its periodization is currently controversial. However, within its framework, the following stages of human development are distinguished. The table in school textbooks shows that this era consists of two main periods. The first began at the end of the 19th century and affects the entire first half of the 20th century - early modern times.

The great crisis, sovereign rivalry, the destruction of the colonial systems of European states, the conditions of the Cold War. Qualitative changes took place only in the second half of the 20th century, when the nature of work changed with the development of industrial robots and the spread of computers. The changes also affected the international sphere, when cooperation took the place of rivalry.

Lesson plan Sources, main stages of primitive history Evolution of biological species of human ancestors Evolution of social relations and forms Preconditions for the formation of civilizations

Anthropogenesis is the process of formation of a person as a biological species and sociogenesis. Sociogenesis is a process of historical and evolutionary emergence and formation of human society.

Theories of anthropogenesis The theory of creation (creationism). This theory claims that man is created by God. External interference theory. According to this theory, the appearance of people on Earth is somehow connected with the activities of other civilizations (UFOs). The theory of spatial anomalies The followers of this theory interpret anthropogenesis as an element of the development of a stable spatial anomaly (radiation).

Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory suggests that humans descended from the great apes - great apes through gradual modification under the influence of external factors and natural selection

LABOR THEORY OF ANTHROPOGENESIS by Friedrich Engels Labor activity (social factor) was a decisive factor in the process of humanizing the monkey.This is a complex phenomenon, including the development of upright posture, progressive brain transformations, hand adaptation to work, changes in the dentition, formation of articulate speech, conceptual thinking, consciousness, restructuring of ontogenesis, development of social organization, material culture and other aspects.

Archaeological periodization (periodization is based on differences in the material and technique of making tools) 1. Stone Age (from the emergence of man to the 3rd millennium BC) 2. Bronze Age (from the end of the 4th to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. .) 3. Iron Age (from 1 millennium BC - to the present day).

Australopithecus (southern monkey) 4-5 million years ago Moved on the hind limbs The volume of the brain (500-600 cubic cm), more than that of a monkey Teeth are similar to humans Did not make tools

Skillful man (Homo habilis) 2, 4 -1, 5 million years ago Erect walking The brain volume is greater than that of Australopithecus Engaged in hunting, building housing Manufactures tools

Homo erectus 1, 7 million years ago The brain volume is larger than that of humans. skillful Manufactured stone tools (hand chopper) Was able to maintain fire, but not to extract it Inhabited Europe and Asia Two types: Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus.

Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens) 300 thousand years ago Two species: Neanderthal (300 -40 thousand years ago) and Cro-Magnon (40 -35 thousand years ago)

Neanderthal Small in stature, no chin. Was incredibly strong Survived glaciation Inhabited all continents except America and Australia Brain size was not inferior to modern humans Hunted in groups for mammoth and cave bear Invented the spear-thrower Was a meat-eater Speech and thinking skills Sewed clothes from skins Buried the dead

Cro-Magnons People of a modern look Settled on all continents Perfect stone processing technique. Used horn and bones Domesticated a dog Cave painting Lived in tribal communities Invented a bow and arrows

Answer the questions Anthropogenesis is carried out under the influence of what factors? BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL Which ancient people spread across all continents? Cro-Magnons Why Homo erectus has ceased to depend on the climate? Got fire What helped the ancient people to hunt very large animals? Collective hunting Why did the Neanderthals die out? Due to the onset of cold and their extermination by the Cro-Magnons

Paleolithic ... 11 thousand years ago Climate Belly world Tools of labor Technician Forms owner Dwellings Artist Vera Sots. organization of society. Mesolithic 10 -8 thousand years ago Neolithic 8 -4 thousand years ago Eneolithic 4 -3 thousand years ago

Paleolithic ... 11 thousand years ago Mesolithic 10 -8 thousand years ago Neolithic 8 -4 thousand years ago Eneolithic 4 -3 thousand years ago Climate Four glaciations Melting of glaciers, appear. forests and steppes Vozn. time. nat. zones Diversified pr erodny zones Belly world Large. animals bears, mammoth Extinct kr. alive. Deer, bulls Domestication Diverse animals animals. world Tools Technician Choppers, axes knives. Chipped pebble technique Bow, sickles. boomer. Te Sokhi, plows, kirp hen. ichi splitting. Tech. polished stone wki stone Transition from kam. to the copper tools. Hostess uniforms Hunting, gathering. Having extracted. fire Hunting, gathering Farming and about, fishing. cattle breeding Irrigated agriculture Dwellings Caves, hunter camps Caves, semi-earthlings Kirpichn. houses. ki Firing clay The houses have kilns Art Cave painting. Sculpt. women Image groups of hunters, rituals Ornament for Perfection. crockery, decorated. art of Vera Burial. Totem rev. The cult of the leaders The cult of the ancestors and the land. Magic, cold,. Kul Temples. Belief in mother's underworld Soc. orga Created. small families. Weakened communities. Main Vozn. Neighborhood Zarozd. childbirth. total the role of elders. communities. Social unions Matriarchy Gender-age sect. tribal labor. Cities. Vozn. early earth edelch. civilizations

Social relations in the Paleolithic period There are two points of view: First, the ancient people lived in small groups at the head of which was a leader who dominated the rest of the group. Second, there was equality and mutual assistance in the groups, which allowed people to survive during the ice age (tribal community)

Tribal community of the Late Paleolithic period (task - insert the missing words) Collective of blood relatives (100 -150 people), originating from ……………. ... dealing with a common economy based on. ……………. property and equality in the distribution of products headed by …………………. ... All the most important issues in the life of the community were resolved at a meeting of its adult members (………………..)

Tribal community of the Late Paleolithic period (correct answer) A collective of blood relatives (100-150 people), descending from a common ancestor, engaged in a common economy based on common collective property and equality in the distribution of products, headed by elders. All the most important issues of the life of the community were resolved at a meeting of its adult members (national assembly) Two stages of the tribal community: matriarchy and patriarchy

Stages of family development 1. Group marriage (promiscuity - promiscuous sexual relations) A) endogamy - marital relations within the group B) exogamy - marital relations outside the group 2. Polygamy A) polygyny - polygamy B) polyandry - one woman had many men 3. Monogamy A) multi-generational family B) nuclear family

Age and sex division of labor during the Paleolithic Men - hunted Women - were engaged in gathering, cooked food and sewed clothes. Children helped with the housework. Initiation is the rite of passage of a teenager into adulthood.

Primitive people knew a lot about the world. They understood the habits of animals, the properties of different plants and stones, knew how to predict the weather, and heal wounds. Even surgical operations were performed with stone tools: they cut off the injured arm, opened the skull.

Observing natural phenomena, thinking about the life of people led to the birth of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of invisible forces-spirits and gods that affect nature and human life. This is how religion was born

Religion is one of the forms of social consciousness, the reflection of reality in illusory and fantastic images, ideas, concepts. Early forms of religious beliefs: Fetishism Totemism Magic Witchcraft Witchcraft Animism Funeral cult The cult of leaders

For primitive people, gods and spirits were not some otherworldly forces that govern the world, they were not perceived as something different from man. The gods were embodied in specific objects: stones, trees, animals. The ancestors of the family were also gods. These ancestors were often considered animals of some kind. People felt their constant connection with the gods, who can be appeased or punished.

Much attention was paid to the burial rite, which appeared even under the Neanderthals, since the members of the genus who left for the afterlife had to be provided with everything necessary for life there. Ancient people believed in life after death. During the Mesolithic period, they began to bury the dead near their homes.

Art originated from the Neanderthals. Under the Cro-Magnons, the time of its true heyday came. In the Paleolithic, cave painting appeared with the image of mammoths, bison, and deer. Cave drawings date back to the period from 30-12 thousand years ago

Unlike animals, the image of people, as a rule, was carried out in the abstract. On the walls of caves, all people have masks on their faces.

There are practically no faces in small statuettes of women, as a rule, naked, occasionally dressed. Historians suggest that these are the ancestors of the clan. Such sculptures also expressed the ideas of motherhood and fertility.

Formation of peoples Southwest Asia and North Africa: Semitic-Hamitic language family (Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians) South Urals, Volga region, North Caucasus: Indo-Europeans Form of farming Indo-European cattle breeding; the first to domesticate the horse, to master the bronze. They settled in Europe, Central Asia, Iran, India ...

Neolithic revolution (Mesolithic and Neolithic period) Transition from appropriating to producing economy, that is, from gathering and hunting to agriculture and animal husbandry. What are the reasons for the Neolithic Revolution?

Climate change Using textbook pages 23-24, show the logical chain of events leading to the Neolithic revolution.

Climate change Large animals became extinct Correct answer Invented the bow and arrow Invented the sickle Drought farming Animal domestication Cattle breeding

Causes of the Neolithic Revolution 1. Depletion of reserves of game and useful plants with the improvement of hunting methods and population growth. 2. Raising the technical level of tools and the development of knowledge. 3. The presence of favorable natural conditions conducive to the development of agriculture and animal husbandry.

The "Neolithic revolution" took place in a number of centers of the emergence of agriculture: 1. Western Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean - 8-6 thousand years BC. e. 2. Indochina - 7 - 6 thousand years BC. e. 3. Iran and Central Asia - 6 - 5 thousand years BC e. 4. Nile Valley - 5 - 4 thousand years BC. e. 5. India - 5 - 3 thousand years BC e. 6. China, Central America, Peru - 4-1 thousand years BC. e.

Man became relatively independent of nature Plows and plows appeared, bull labor was used in the fields. Copper and bronze tools replaced stone tools Production of woolen fabrics, as a result of animal domestication Ceramics and a potter's wheel appeared. Clay was used to make bricks. The consequences of the Neolithic revolution. Manufacturing led to surplus products. The appearance of leaders and priests Irrigation structures were created People began to live in settled settlements. Decomposition of the clan community and the emergence of a neighboring community. Formation of a union of tribes. The emergence of non-literate civilizations

Dictionary Social division of labor differentiation of existing social functions in society. Private property is the right to own separate property and property for tools and products.

Independent work Characteristics of the Bronze and Iron Ages Purpose of the work: to learn how to compose and analyze the historical stages of the development of mankind Explanations for the work: Brief historical information: At the settlement of farmers and pastoralists at the turn of 8-7 thousand BC. e. in Asia Minor, the most ancient products from native copper were found. From 5-4 thousand BC e. in the Middle East, the Eneolithic period (copper-stone age) begins. On the territory of Europe, the beginning of the Eneolithic period dates back to 3000 BC. e. The Bronze Age began in the Middle East at the end of 4-3 millennia BC. e. and Europe in the 2nd millennium BC. e. Archaeologists have found bronze axes and arrows. In the Bronze Age, nomadic cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture, writing, slavery (the Middle East, China, South America, etc.) appeared. Burial mounds became widespread; the use of the horse as a transport animal began. Chariots appeared. In the valleys of large rivers: Nile, Euphrates and Tigris, Indus, Yellow River, the first slave states arose in the IV-III millennia BC. Iron began to be made from the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e. in Asia Minor and in 1 millennium BC. e. in Europe. The technical revolution caused by the spread of iron greatly expanded the power of man over nature: it became possible to clear large forest areas with axes for sowing, with hoe-diggers, they expanded and improved irrigation and reclamation structures, a plow with an iron ploughshare cultivated the land. Masks made of thin gold sheets were placed on their faces. There is a specialization of the craft (blacksmiths and gunsmiths), military equipment has improved, exchange has expanded, and metal coins have spread as a means of circulation. The possibility of enrichment through exploitation has given rise to wars of plunder and enslavement. At the beginning of the Iron Age, fortifications were widespread. Assignment: 1. Compile and fill in the comparative table "Bronze and Iron Ages". 2. Draw conclusions using all the words and phrases below, without changing their form: A) producing, regions, differences, in rates, with the development, development, different, growing, economies of the world. B) where, for agriculture, handicrafts, conditions, development, favorable, faster, there, there was, existed, farms C) the first, irrigation structures, states, to build and maintain, state, complex, arose where it was necessary for agriculture, was, in serviceable D) iron, experienced, primitive communal system, on the eve of the emergence, there were tribes of Europe and Asia, class society, the stage of decay, and the state, in the era, century. Literature: V. V. Artemov, Yu. N. Lubchenkov "History"

Comparative table "Bronze and Iron Age" Bronze Age (end 4 - beginning of the 1st millennium BC) Distribution region Tools of labor and war Forms of economy Rites Culture Social organization Iron Age (from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC). …….)

Comparative table "Bronze and Iron Age" Bronze Age (end 4 - beginning of the 1st millennium AD) Iron Age (from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC - …….) Region of distribution Middle East 4 -3 thousand days e. Europe 2 kd. N. e. Middle East 2000 BC e. Europe 1 kd. N. e. Tools of labor and war Bronze axes and arrows, chariots Iron axes and arrows, hoeing diggers, plows and plows with iron plowshares, horseshoes Forms of economy Nomadic cattle breeding. Irrigated agriculture, horse breeding Craft specialization (blacksmiths, gunsmiths). Development of exchange, the emergence of money-coins Rites Barrow burials Golden masks Culture Writing. The spread of writing Social organization The first slave states in the river valleys Wars for plunder. The emergence of tribal aristocracy, private property and states.

Correct answer With the development of a manufacturing economy, differences in the rates of development of different regions of the world increase. Where favorable conditions for agriculture and handicraft existed, development proceeded faster. The first states arose where for agriculture it was necessary to build and maintain complex irrigation structures. In the era of the Iron Age, the tribes of Europe and Asia were going through a stage of disintegration of the primitive communal system, they were on the eve of the emergence of a class society and state.

The origins of the state. Organization of power in the primitive communal system. National Assembly of All Adult Tribal Members Tribal Council, Elders and Chief Military Leader

Organization of power in the period of disintegration of the tribal system Formed alliances of tribes for joint defense and attack, led by the leaders of the military leaders and squads. The chief becomes both a judge and a priest at the same time. Sources of wealth for the leaders: taxes, spoils of war, captive slaves. Creation of governing bodies of tribal unions and the formation of the top of the aristocracy. The leader turns into a ruler who is supported by the aristocracy, the squad.

Preconditions for the emergence of civilizations (4-3 thousand BC) Economic Socio-political Cultural

Economic prerequisites for the emergence of civilizations (social division of labor) The emergence of agriculture and cattle breeding The separation of handicrafts and construction from agriculture The emergence of exchange and trade The emergence of private property

Socio-political prerequisites The disintegration of the clan community and the emergence of a neighboring community Property inequality led to the emergence of social inequality The emergence of slavery The introduction of mandatory taxes for the population for the maintenance of leaders, priests, soldiers Creation of governing bodies and violence to govern society, the emergence of the state.

What is a Neighborhood Community? (p. 28 of the textbook) Neighboring community - separated from the clan of individual families who have personal property (housing, tools, livestock), but use the land together.