From whom the Persians descended. Persians

For an outside observer (for example, a European) that the Persians and the Arabs are about the same thing: both are Muslims of varying degrees of swarthiness, speaking an incomprehensible language. Is this really so? Of course no. There is a huge difference between Arabs and Persians - in language, culture, and even (to the surprise of many) in religion. How do Persians differ from Arabs, and what do they have in common? Let's start in order.

Appearance on the historical stage

The Persians were the first to show themselves as active participants in international events. Almost 300 years passed from the first mention in the Assyrian chronicles in 836 BC to the creation of an independent Persian state, and a little later - the Achaemenid empire. Actually, the Persian state was not purely national in ancient times. As residents of one of the regions of the Median Empire, similar to them in language and culture, the Persians, under the leadership of Cyrus the Great, rebelled and made a change of power, later conquering vast territories that were not part of the Medes. According to some historians, the Achaemenid state at its highest prosperity numbered 50 million people - about half of the world's population at that time.

The Arabs, who originally lived in the northeast of the Arabian Peninsula, begin to be mentioned in historical sources at about the same time as the Persians, but they do not participate in military or cultural expansion. The Arab states of South Arabia (the Kingdom of Sabae) and Northern Arabia (Palmyra, Nabatea and others) live mainly on trade. Palmyra, which decided to stand in opposition to the Roman Empire, was rather easily defeated by the proud Quirites. But the situation changes radically when Muhammad is born in the commercial city of Mecca.

He creates the youngest monotheistic religion, whose adherents have built one of the largest states of all time - the Arab Caliphate. The Arabs fully or partially assimilated a large number of different peoples, mainly those that were below their level of social and cultural development. The new religion - Islam - and the Arabic language became the basis for assimilation. The fact is that, according to Muslim teachings, the holy book, the Koran, is only the original, written in Arabic, and all translations are considered only interpretations. This forced all Muslims to learn Arabic and often led to the loss of national identity (in particular, this happened with the ancient Libyans and Syrians, who were previously separate peoples; now their descendants are considered Arab sub-ethnic groups).

The difference between the Persians and the Arabs is that in the 7th century AD, Persia was in decline, and the Arabs conquered it relatively easily, establishing Islam. The new religion was superimposed on an ancient rich culture, and Persia of the 8th century AD became the basis for the so-called Golden Age of Islam. During this period, science and culture were actively developing. Later, the Persians adopted Shiism as a state religion, one of the directions of Islam, opposing themselves to the Arabs and Turks - mainly Sunnis. And today Iran - the successor of ancient Persia - remains the main stronghold of Shiism.

Today, the Persians, in addition to Shiism, profess Sunnism and the ancient religion - Zoroastrianism. A Zoroastrian, for example, was the famous rock singer Freddie Mercury. Arabs, being mostly Sunnis, partially adhere to Shiism (part of the population of Syria, most of the inhabitants of Iraq and Bahrain). In addition, some of the Arabs remained faithful to Christianity, which was once widespread in the territory later conquered by the Muslims. The famous Latin American singer Shakira comes from a family of Arab Christians.

Comparison

As is often the case in history, religious differences were the result of political and military confrontation between different states. In religion, it is easier to consolidate dogmas that clearly distinguish "us, ours" from "them, strangers." This happened in the case of Persia: Shiism has a number of serious theological differences from Sunni Islam. Sunnis and Shiites fought with each other no less enthusiastically than Catholics with Protestants in their modern Europe: for example, in 1501 Persia adopted Shiism, and already in 1514 the first war began with the Sunni Ottoman Empire, which extended its influence over most of the Arab territories ...

As for the language, then the Persians and the Arabs have nothing in common. Arabic belongs to the Semitic branch of the Afrasian language family, and its closest "relative" is Hebrew, the state language of Israel. The similarity can be seen even by a layman. For example, the well-known Arabic greeting "salam aleikum" and "shalom aleichem" in Hebrew are clearly consonant and translated in the same way - "peace be upon you."

It is incorrect to talk about a single Persian language, since, according to modern concepts, it is a linguistic group consisting of four related languages ​​(however, some linguists still consider them to be dialects):

• Farsi, or the Persian language proper;
• Pashto;
• Dari (together with Pashto, it is one of the official languages ​​of Afghanistan);
• Tajik.

The following fact is widely known: during the war in Afghanistan, the Soviet command often used Tajik fighters to communicate with local residents, since their language is almost identical to Tajik. Whether in this case Pashto, Dari and Tajik are considered separate languages ​​or only dialects is a subject of linguistic controversy. The native speakers themselves do not discuss this especially, understanding each other perfectly.

table

In a concentrated form, information about the difference between Persians and Arabs is presented in the table below. Determining the number of Persians depends on who is considered Persians (this is not such a simple question as it seems at first glance).

In ancient times, Persia became the center of one of the greatest empires in history, stretching from Egypt to the Indus River. It included all the previous empires - Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians and Hittites. The later empire of Alexander the Great almost did not include territories that had not previously belonged to the Persians, while it was smaller than Persia under King Darius.

Since its inception in the 6th century. BC. before the conquest by Alexander the Great in the 4th century. BC. for two and a half centuries, Persia occupied a dominant position in the ancient world. Greek domination lasted for about a hundred years, and after its fall, the Persian state was revived under two local dynasties: the Arshakids (Parthian kingdom) and Sassanids (New Persian kingdom). For more than seven centuries, they kept Rome in fear, and then Byzantium, until in the 7th century. AD the Sassanid state was not conquered by the Islamic conquerors.

The geography of the empire.

The lands inhabited by the ancient Persians only approximately coincide with the borders of modern Iran. In ancient times, such boundaries simply did not exist. There were periods when the Persian kings were the rulers of most of the then known world, at other times the main cities of the empire were located in Mesopotamia, west of Persia proper, and it also happened that the entire territory of the kingdom was divided between the rival local rulers.

A significant part of the territory of Persia is occupied by a high arid plateau (1200 m), crossed by mountain ranges with individual peaks reaching 5500 m.In the west and north, there are the Zagros and Elburz mountain ranges, which frame the highland in the form of a V, leaving it open to the east. The western and northern borders of the highland approximately coincide with the current borders of Iran, but in the east it extends beyond the borders of the country, occupying part of the territory of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan. Three areas are isolated from the plateau: the coast of the Caspian Sea, the coast of the Persian Gulf and the southwestern plains, which are the eastern continuation of the Mesopotamian lowland.

Immediately west of Persia is Mesopotamia, home to the world's most ancient civilizations. The Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Babylonia and Assyria had a significant impact on the early culture of Persia. And although the Persian conquests ended almost three thousand years after the heyday of Mesopotamia, Persia in many ways became the heir to the Mesopotamian civilization. Most of the major cities of the Persian Empire were located in Mesopotamia, and Persian history is largely a continuation of Mesopotamian history.

Persia lies on the path of the earliest migrations from Central Asia. Slowly moving westward, the settlers skirted the northern tip of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan and turned south and west, where through the more accessible areas of Khorasan, southeast of the Caspian Sea, they entered the Iranian plateau south of the Elburz Mountains. Centuries later, parallel to the early route ran the main trade artery connecting the Far East with the Mediterranean and providing control of the empire and the transfer of troops. At the western end of the highlands, it descended into the plains of Mesopotamia. Other important routes linked the southeastern plains through the heavily rugged mountains to the highlands proper.

Away from several main roads, thousands of agricultural communities were scattered along long and narrow mountain valleys. They led a subsistence economy, due to their isolation from their neighbors, many of them stayed away from wars and invasions and for many centuries carried out an important mission to preserve the continuity of the culture so characteristic of the ancient history of Persia.

HISTORY

Ancient Iran.

It is known that the most ancient inhabitants of Iran had a different origin than the Persians and peoples related to them, who created civilizations in the Iranian Highlands, as well as the Semites and Sumerians, whose civilizations arose in Mesopotamia. During excavations in caves near the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, skeletons of people dated to the 8th millennium BC were discovered. In the north-west of Iran, in the town of Goy-Tepe, the skulls of people who lived in the 3rd millennium BC were found.

Scientists have suggested calling the indigenous population the Caspians, which indicates a geographical connection with the peoples who inhabited the Caucasus Mountains to the west of the Caspian Sea. The Caucasian tribes themselves, as you know, migrated to more southern regions, to the highlands. The "Caspian" type, apparently, was preserved in a greatly weakened form among the nomadic tribes of the Lurs in modern Iran.

For the archeology of the Middle East, the central issue is the dating of the appearance of agricultural settlements here. Monuments of material culture and other evidence found in the Caspian caves indicate that the tribes inhabiting the region from the 8th to the 5th millennium BC. were engaged mainly in hunting, then moved on to cattle breeding, which, in turn, approx. IV millennium BC replaced by agriculture. Permanent settlements appeared in the western part of the highlands before the 3rd millennium BC, and most likely in the 5th millennium BC. The main settlements include Sialk, Goy-Tepe, Gissar, but the largest were Susa, which later became the capital of the Persian state. In these small villages, adobe huts crowded together along winding narrow streets. The dead were buried either under the floor of a house or in a cemetery in a crooked ("uterine") position. The reconstruction of the life of the ancient inhabitants of the highlands was carried out on the basis of the study of utensils, tools and ornaments that were placed in the graves in order to provide the deceased with everything necessary for the afterlife.

The development of culture in prehistoric Iran proceeded progressively over many centuries. As in Mesopotamia, brick houses of large sizes began to be built here, objects were made from cast copper, and then from cast bronze. Stone seals with carved patterns appeared, which were evidence of the emergence of private property. The large jugs found for storing food suggest that supplies were made between harvests. Among the finds of all periods, there are figurines of the mother goddess, often depicted with her husband, who was her husband and son at the same time.

Most notable is the huge variety of painted earthenware, some of which have walls no thicker than a hen's egg shells. Depicted in profile, figurines of birds and animals testify to the talent of prehistoric artisans. Some clay products depict a person himself engaged in hunting or performing some kind of rituals. Around 1200-800 BC painted pottery is replaced by one-color - red, black or gray, which is explained by the invasion of tribes from as yet unidentified regions. Pottery of the same type was found very far from Iran - in China.

Early history.

The historical era begins on the Iranian Highlands at the end of the 4th millennium BC. Most of the information about the descendants of the ancient tribes who lived on the eastern borders of Mesopotamia, in the Zagros mountains, is gleaned from the Mesopotamian chronicles. (There is no information in the annals about the tribes inhabiting the central and eastern regions of the Iranian Highlands, because they had no ties with the Mesopotamian kingdoms.) The largest of the peoples inhabiting the Zagros were the Elamites, who captured the ancient city of Susa, located on the plain at the foothills Zagros, and the powerful and prosperous state of Elam, who founded there. The Elamite chronicles began to be compiled ca. 3000 BC and were conducted for two thousand years. Further to the north lived the Kassites, barbarian tribes of horsemen, who by the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. conquered Babylonia. The Kassites adopted the Babylonian civilization and ruled southern Mesopotamia for several centuries. Less significant were the tribes of the Northern Zagros, Lullubei and Gutii, who lived in the area where the great Trans-Asian trade route descended from the western tip of the Iranian Highlands to the plain.

The invasion of the Aryans and the Medes kingdom.

Starting from the 2nd millennium BC waves of tribal invasions from Central Asia fell one after another on the Iranian plateau. These were the Aryans, Indo-Iranian tribes who spoke dialects that were the proto-languages ​​of the current languages ​​of the Iranian Highlands and Northern India. They also gave Iran his name ("the homeland of the Aryans"). The first wave of conquerors swept in approx. 1500 BC One group of Aryans settled in the west of the Iranian Highlands, where they founded the state of Mitanni, another group in the south among the Kassites. However, the main stream of Aryans passed Iran, turning sharply to the south, crossed the Hindu Kush and invaded North India.

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. along the same path, a second wave of newcomers, the Iranian tribes proper, arrived in the Iranian Highlands, and a much more numerous one. Some of the Iranian tribes - the Sogdians, Scythians, Saki, Parthians and Bactrians - retained their nomadic way of life, others went beyond the highlands, but two tribes, the Medes and the Persians (Parsa), settled in the valleys of the Zagros ridge, mixed with the local population and adopted their political , religious and cultural traditions. The Medes settled in the vicinity of Ecbatana (modern Hamadan). The Persians settled a little further south, on the plains of Elam and in the mountainous region adjacent to the Persian Gulf, which was later called Persis (Parsa or Fars). Perhaps, the Persians originally settled north-west of the Medes, west of Lake Rezaye (Urmia), and only later moved south under the pressure of Assyria, which was then experiencing the peak of its power. On some Assyrian bas-reliefs of the 9th and 8th centuries. BC. depicts battles with the Medes and Persians.

The Medes kingdom with its capital in Ecbatana was gradually gaining strength. In 612 BC. The Median king Cyaxar (reigned from 625 to 585 BC) entered into an alliance with Babylonia, captured Nineveh and crushed the Assyrian state. The Median kingdom stretched from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) almost to the Indus River. During just one reign, Media from a small tributary principality turned into the strongest power in the Middle East.

Persian state of the Achaemenids.

The power of Media did not last longer than two generations. The Persian dynasty of Achaemenids (named after its founder Achaemen) began to rule in Pars even under the Medes. In 553 BC. Cyrus II the Great, Achaemenid, ruler of Parsa, raised a revolt against the Medes king Astyages, the son of Cyaxar, as a result of which a powerful alliance of the Medes and Persians was created. The new power threatened the entire Middle East. In 546 BC. King Croesus of Lydia led a coalition directed against King Cyrus, which, in addition to the Lydians, included the Babylonians, Egyptians and Spartans. According to legend, the oracle predicted to the Lydian king that the war would end with the collapse of the great state. The delighted Croesus did not even bother to ask which state was meant. The war ended with the victory of Cyrus, who pursued Croesus as far as Lydia and there captured him. In 539 BC. Cyrus occupied Babylonia, and by the end of his reign he expanded the borders of the state from the Mediterranean Sea to the eastern outskirts of the Iranian Highlands, making Pasargadae, a city in southwestern Iran, as the capital.

Organization of the Achaemenid State.

Apart from a few brief Achaemenid inscriptions, we draw basic information about the Achaemenid state from the works of ancient Greek historians. Even the names of the Persian kings entered historiography as the ancient Greeks wrote them. For example, the names of the kings known today as Cyaxar, Cyrus and Xerxes are pronounced in Persian as Uvakhshtra, Kurush and Hshayarshan.

The main city of the state was Susa. Babylon and Ecbatana were considered administrative centers, and Persepolis was the center of ritual and spiritual life. The state was divided into twenty satrapies, or provinces, headed by satraps. Representatives of the Persian nobility became satraps, and the position itself was inherited. This combination of the power of an absolute monarch and semi-independent governors has been a characteristic feature of the country's political structure for many centuries.

All provinces were connected by postal roads, the most significant of which, the “royal road”, 2400 km long, ran from Susa to the Mediterranean coast. Despite the fact that a single administrative system, a single currency and a single official language were introduced throughout the empire, many subordinate peoples retained their customs, religion and local rulers. The period of the Achaemenid rule was notable for its tolerance. Long years of peace under the Persians favored the development of cities, trade and agriculture. Iran was enjoying its Golden Age.

The Persian army differed in composition and tactics from the previous armies, for which chariots and infantry were typical. The main striking force of the Persian troops was horse archers, who bombarded the enemy with a cloud of arrows, without coming into direct contact with him. The army consisted of six corps of 60,000 soldiers each and elite formations of 10,000 people, selected from members of the noble families and called "immortals"; they also constituted the personal guard of the king. However, during the campaigns in Greece, as well as during the reign of the last king from the Achaemenid dynasty, Darius III, a huge, poorly controlled mass of horsemen, chariots and infantrymen went into battle, unable to maneuver in small spaces and often significantly inferior to the disciplined infantry of the Greeks.

The Achaemenids were very proud of their origins. The Behistun inscription, carved on the rock by order of Darius I, reads: “I, Darius, the great king, the king of kings, the king of countries inhabited by all nations, has long been the king of this great land, stretching even further, son of Hystaspes, Achaemenides, Persian, son Persian, Aryan, and my ancestors were Aryans. " However, the Achaemenid civilization was a conglomerate of customs, culture, social institutions and ideas that existed in all parts of the Ancient World. It was at this time that East and West first came into direct contact, and the resulting exchange of ideas was never interrupted thereafter.

Hellenic dominion.

Weakened by endless rebellions, uprisings and civil strife, the Achaemenid state could not withstand the armies of Alexander the Great. The Macedonians landed on the Asian continent in 334 BC, defeated the Persian troops on the Granik River and twice defeated huge armies under the command of the incompetent Darius III - at the Battle of Issus (333 BC) in the southwest of Asia Minor and under Gaugamela (331 BC) in Mesopotamia. Having seized Babylon and Susa, Alexander went to Persepolis and set it on fire, apparently in revenge for the Athens burned by the Persians. Continuing eastward, he found the body of Darius III, killed by his own warriors. Alexander spent more than four years in the east of the Iranian Highlands, founding numerous Greek colonies. He then turned south and conquered the Persian provinces in what is now West Pakistan. After that, he went on a hike to the Indus Valley. Back in 325 BC. in Susa, Alexander began to actively encourage his soldiers to marry Persians, cherishing the idea of ​​a single state of Macedonians and Persians. In 323 BC. Alexander died of fever in Babylon at the age of 33. The vast territory he conquered was immediately divided between his military leaders, who competed among themselves. And although the plan of Alexander the Great to merge the Greek and Persian culture was never realized, the numerous colonies founded by him and his successors over the centuries retained the originality of their culture and exerted a significant influence on the local peoples and their art.

After the death of Alexander the Great, the Iranian Highlands became part of the Seleucid state, which got its name from one of its commanders. Soon the local nobility began a struggle for independence. In the satrapy of Parthia, located southeast of the Caspian Sea in an area known as Khorasan, a nomadic tribe of Parns revolted and expelled the Seleucid governor. The first ruler of the Parthian state was Arshak I (ruled from 250 to 248/247 BC).

Parthian state of the Arshakids.

The period following the revolt of Arshak I against the Seleucids is called either the Arshakid period or the Parthian period. Constant wars were fought between the Parthians and the Seleucids, ending in 141 BC, when the Parthians, led by Mithridates I, took Seleucia, the capital of the Seleucids on the Tigris River. On the opposite bank of the river, Mithridates founded a new capital, Ctesiphon, and extended his dominion over most of the Iranian highlands. Mithridates II (ruled from 123 to 87/88 BC) further expanded the boundaries of the state and, having assumed the title "king of kings" (shahinshah), became the ruler of a vast territory from India to Mesopotamia, and in the east to Chinese Turkestan.

The Parthians considered themselves the direct heirs of the Achaemenid state, and their relatively poor culture was made up for by the influence of Hellenistic culture and traditions, introduced earlier by Alexander the Great and the Seleucids. As before in the Seleucid state, the political center moved to the west of the highlands, namely to Ctesiphon, therefore in Iran there are few monuments in good condition that testify to that time.

During the reign of Phraates III (reigned from 70 to 58/57 BC) Parthia entered a period of almost continuous wars with the Roman Empire, which lasted almost 300 years. The opposing armies fought over a vast territory. The Parthians defeated the army under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus at Carrhos in Mesopotamia, after which the border between the two empires lay along the Euphrates. In 115 A.D. Roman Emperor Trajan took Seleucia. Despite this, the Parthian state held out, and in 161 Vologes III devastated the Roman province of Syria. However, the long years of war bled the Parthians bled, and attempts to defeat the Romans on the western borders weakened their power over the Iranian Highlands. Rebellions broke out in a number of areas. The satrap of Farsa (or Parsa) Ardashir, the son of a religious leader, declared himself a ruler as a direct descendant of the Achaemenids. After defeating several Parthian armies and killing the last Parthian king Artaban V in battle, he took Ctesiphon and inflicted a crushing defeat on the coalition, which was trying to restore the power of the Arshakids.

Sassanid state.

Ardashir (ruled from 224 to 241) founded a new Persian empire known as the Sassanid state (from the ancient Persian title "sasan", or "commander"). His son Shapur I (reigned from 241 to 272) retained elements of the former feudal system, but created a highly centralized state. Shapur's armies first moved east and occupied the entire Iranian plateau up to the river. Indus and then turned west against the Romans. In the battle of Edessa (near modern Urfa, Turkey), Shapur captured the Roman emperor Valerian, along with his 70,000-strong army. The prisoners, including architects and engineers, were forced to work on the construction of roads, bridges and irrigation systems in Iran.

Over the course of several centuries in the Sassanid dynasty, about 30 rulers were replaced; often successors were appointed by the higher clergy and feudal nobility. The dynasty waged continuous wars with Rome. Shapur II, who ascended the throne in 309, fought three times with Rome during the 70 years of his reign. The greatest of the Sassanids is recognized as Khosrov I (ruled from 531 to 579), who was called the Just or Anushirvan ("Immortal soul").

Under the Sassanids, a four-stage system of administrative division was established, a flat rate of land tax was introduced, and numerous artificial irrigation projects were carried out. Traces of these irrigation structures are still preserved in the southwest of Iran. The society was divided into four classes: warriors, priests, scribes and commoners. The latter included peasants, traders and artisans. The first three estates enjoyed special privileges and, in turn, had several gradations. From the highest gradation of the estate, the Sardars, governors of the provinces were appointed. The capital of the state was Bishapur, the most important cities were Ctesiphon and Gundeshapur (the latter was famous as a center of medical education).

After the fall of Rome, Byzantium took the place of the traditional enemy of the Sassanids. Violating the treaty of eternal peace, Khosrow I invaded Asia Minor and in 611 captured and burned Antioch. His grandson Khosrov II (ruled from 590 to 628), nicknamed Parviz ("Victorious"), briefly returned the Persians to their former glory of the Achaemenid times. In the course of several campaigns, he actually defeated the Byzantine Empire, but the Byzantine emperor Heraclius made a daring dash across the Persian rear. In 627, the army of Khosrow II suffered a crushing defeat at Nineveh in Mesopotamia, Khosrow was deposed and stabbed to death by his own son Kavad II, who died a few months later.

The powerful Sassanid state found itself without a ruler, with a destroyed social structure, exhausted as a result of long wars with Byzantium in the west and with the Central Asian Turks in the east. Within five years, twelve half-ghost rulers were replaced, unsuccessfully trying to restore order. In 632, Yazdegerd III restored central authority for several years, but this was not enough. The exhausted empire could not withstand the onslaught of the warriors of Islam, who were irresistibly rushing to the north from the Arabian Peninsula. They dealt their first crushing blow in 637 at the Battle of Kadispi, as a result of which Ctesiphon fell. The final defeat of the Sassanids suffered in 642 at the Battle of Nehavend in the central part of the highlands. Yazdegerd III fled like a hunted beast, his murder in 651 marked the end of the Sassanid era.

CULTURE

Technology.

Irrigation.

The entire economy of ancient Persia was based on agriculture. Rainfall in the Iranian Highlands is insufficient for extensive agriculture, so the Persians had to rely on irrigation. The few and incomplete rivers of the highlands did not provide the ditches with sufficient water, and in the summer they dried up. Therefore, the Persians developed a unique system of underground canals-ropes. At the foot of the mountain ranges, deep wells dug through hard but porous layers of gravel to the underlying impermeable clays that form the lower boundary of the aquifer. The wells collected melt water from the mountain peaks, which were covered with a thick layer of snow in winter. From these wells, underground water conduits, as tall as a man, burst with vertical shafts located at regular intervals, through which light and air came for the workers. Water conduits came to the surface and served as sources of water all year round.

Artificial irrigation with the help of dams and canals, which originated and was widely used in the plains of Mesopotamia, spread to the territory of Elam, similar in natural conditions, through which several rivers flow. This area, now known as Khuzistan, is densely indented by hundreds of ancient canals. Irrigation systems reached their highest development during the Sassanian period. Numerous remains of dams, bridges and aqueducts erected under the Sassanids still exist today. Since they were designed by captured Roman engineers, they are like two peas in a pod reminiscent of similar structures found throughout the Roman Empire.

Transport.

The rivers of Iran are not navigable, but in other parts of the Achaemenid empire, water transport was well developed. So, in 520 BC. Darius I the Great reconstructed the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea. During the Achaemenid period, extensive construction of land roads was carried out, however, paved roads were built mainly in marshy and mountainous areas. Significant sections of narrow, stone-paved roads built under the Sassanids are found in the west and south of Iran. The choice of the site for the construction of roads was unusual for that time. They were laid not along the valleys, along the banks of the rivers, but along the ridges of the mountains. Roads descended into the valleys only to make it possible to cross to the other side in strategically important places, for which massive bridges were erected.

Along the roads, at a distance of a day's journey from one another, post stations were built, where horses were changed. There was a very efficient postal service, with postal couriers covering up to 145 km per day. The center of horse breeding since time immemorial has been the fertile area in the Zagros mountains, adjacent to the Trans-Asian trade route. The Iranians from antiquity began to use camels as beasts of burden; in Mesopotamia, this "mode of transport" came from Media approx. 1100 BC

Economy.

Agricultural production was the backbone of the economy of Ancient Persia. Trade also flourished. All the numerous capitals of the ancient Iranian kingdoms were located along the most important trade route between the Mediterranean and the Far East or on its offshoot towards the Persian Gulf. In all periods, the Iranians played the role of an intermediate link - they guarded this route and kept some of the goods transported along it. During excavations in Susa and Persepolis, wonderful items from Egypt were found. The reliefs of Persepolis depict representatives of all the satrapies of the Achaemenid state, presenting gifts to the great rulers. Since the time of the Achaemenids, Iran has exported marble, alabaster, lead, turquoise, lapis lazuli (lapis lazuli) and carpets. The Achaemenids created fabulous reserves of gold coins minted in various satrapies. In contrast, Alexander the Great introduced a single silver coin for the entire empire. The Parthians returned to the gold currency, and during the time of the Sassanids, silver and copper coins prevailed in circulation.

The system of large feudal estates that developed under the Achaemenids survived to the Seleucid period, but the kings in this dynasty significantly eased the position of the peasants. Then, during the Parthian period, huge feudal estates were rebuilt, and under the Sassanids this system did not change. All states sought to obtain maximum income and established taxes on peasant farms, livestock, land, introduced poll taxes, and made tolls for travel on the roads. All these taxes and fees were collected either by imperial coin or in kind. By the end of the Sassanian period, the number and magnitude of levies had become an intolerable burden for the population, and this tax press played a decisive role in the disintegration of the social structure of the state.

Political and social organization.

All Persian rulers were absolute monarchs who ruled their subjects at the behest of the gods. But this power was absolute only in theory, in fact, it was limited to the influence of hereditary large feudal lords. The rulers tried to achieve stability through marriages with relatives, as well as by marrying the daughters of potential or actual enemies, both domestic and foreign. Nevertheless, the rule of monarchs and the continuity of their power were threatened not only by external enemies, but also by members of their own families.

The Median period was distinguished by a very primitive political organization, which is very typical of peoples transitioning to a sedentary lifestyle. The Achaemenids already had the concept of a unitary state. In the Achaemenid state, the satraps were fully responsible for the state of affairs in their provinces, but could be subjected to unexpected inspections by inspectors, who were called the eyes and ears of the king. The royal court constantly emphasized the importance of the administration of justice and therefore continuously moved from one satrapy to another.

Alexander the Great married the daughter of Darius III, retained the satrapies and the custom of prostrating before the king. The Seleucids adopted from Alexander the idea of ​​the fusion of races and cultures in the vast expanses from the Mediterranean to the river. Ind. During this period, there was a rapid development of cities, accompanied by the Hellenization of the Iranians and the Iranization of the Greeks. However, there were no Iranians among the rulers, and they were always considered outsiders. Iranian traditions were preserved in the Persepolis region, where temples were built in the style of the Achaemenid era.

The Parthians tried to unite the ancient satrapies. They also played an important role in the fight against the nomads from Central Asia advancing from east to west. As before, the satrapies were headed by hereditary governors, but a new factor was the lack of natural continuity of royal power. The legitimacy of the Parthian monarchy was no longer undeniable. The successor was chosen by a council made up of the nobility, which inevitably led to an endless struggle between rival factions.

The Sassanian kings made a serious attempt to revive the spirit and original structure of the Achaemenid state, partly reproducing its rigid social organization. In descending order were vassal princes, hereditary aristocrats, nobles and knights, priests, peasants, slaves. The state administrative apparatus was headed by the first minister, who was subordinate to several ministries, including the military, justice and finance, each of which had its own staff of skilled officials. The supreme judge was the king himself, and justice was administered by the priests.

Religion.

In ancient times, the cult of the great mother goddess, the symbol of procreation and fertility, was widespread. In Elam, she was called Kirisisha, and throughout the Parthian period her images were cast on Luristan bronze items and were made in the form of terracotta, bone, ivory and metal figurines.

The inhabitants of the Iranian Highlands also worshiped many deities of Mesopotamia. After the first wave of Aryans passed through Iran, Indo-Iranian deities such as Mithra, Varuna, Indra and Nasatya appeared here. In all beliefs, there was certainly a pair of deities - the goddess, who personified the Sun and the Earth, and her husband, who personified the Moon and natural elements. Local gods bore the names of the tribes and peoples who worshiped them. Elam had its own deities, primarily the goddess Shala and her husband Inshushinak.

The Achaemenid period was marked by a decisive turn from polytheism to a more universal system, reflecting the eternal struggle between good and evil. The earliest inscription from this period - a metal tablet made before 590 BC - contains the name of the god Aguramazda (Ahuramazda). Indirectly, the inscription may be a reflection of the reform of Mazdaism (the cult of Aguramazda) carried out by the prophet Zarathushtra, or Zoroaster, which is narrated in the Ghats, the ancient sacred hymns.

The identity of Zarathushtra continues to be shrouded in mystery. Apparently, he was born approx. 660 BC, but perhaps much earlier, and maybe much later. The god Ahuramazda personified the good principle, truth and light, apparently in opposition to Ahriman (Angra Mainu), the personification of the evil principle, although the very concept of Angra Mainu could appear later. In the inscriptions of Darius, Ahuramazda is mentioned, and the relief on his tomb depicts the worship of this deity at the sacrificial fire. The chronicles suggest that Darius and Xerxes believed in immortality. The worship of the sacred fire took place both inside temples and in open places. Mages, originally members of one of the Median clans, became hereditary priests. They oversaw the temples, took care of strengthening the faith, performing certain rituals. An ethical doctrine based on good thoughts, good words and good deeds was honored. Throughout the Achaemenid period, the rulers were very tolerant of local deities, and since the reign of Artaxerxes II, the ancient Iranian sun god Mithra and the goddess of fertility Anahita received official recognition.

The Parthians, in search of their own official religion, turned to the Iranian past and settled on Mazdaism. Traditions were codified, and magicians regained their former power. The cult of Anahita continued to enjoy official recognition, as well as popularity among the people, and the cult of Mithra crossed the western borders of the kingdom and spread to most of the Roman Empire. In the west of the Parthian kingdom, they tolerated Christianity, which was widespread here. At the same time, in the eastern regions of the empire, Greek, Indian and Iranian deities united in a single Greco-Bactrian pantheon.

Under the Sassanids, the continuity was preserved, but at the same time there were some important changes in religious traditions. Mazdaism survived most of the early reforms of Zarathushtra and became associated with the cult of Anahita. To compete on equal terms with Christianity and Judaism, the sacred book of the Zoroastrians was created Avesta, a collection of ancient poems and hymns. The mages still stood at the head of the priests and were the guardians of the three great national fires, as well as the holy fires in all important settlements. Christians by that time had long been persecuted, they were considered enemies of the state, since they were identified with Rome and Byzantium, but by the end of the Sassanid rule, the attitude towards them became more tolerant and Nestorian communities flourished in the country.

Other religions also arose during the Sassanian period. In the middle of the 3rd century. preached by the prophet Mani, who developed the idea of ​​uniting Mazdaism, Buddhism and Christianity and especially emphasized the need to free the spirit from the body. Manichaeism demanded celibacy from the priests, and virtue from the believers. Followers of Manichaeism were supposed to observe fasts and offer prayers, but not worship images and not make sacrifices. Shapur I favored Manichaeism and, perhaps, intended to make it the state religion, but this was sharply opposed by the still powerful priests of Mazdaism, and in 276 Mani was executed. Nevertheless, Manichaeism persisted for several centuries in Central Asia, Syria and Egypt.

At the end of the 5th century. preached by another religious reformer - a native of Iran Mazdak. His ethical doctrine combined both elements of Mazdaism and practical ideas about non-violence, vegetarianism and community life. Kavad I initially supported the Mazdakians sect, but this time the official priesthood was stronger and in 528 the prophet and his followers were executed. The advent of Islam put an end to the national religious traditions of Persia, but a group of Zoroastrians fled to India. Their descendants, the Parsis, still practice the Zarathushtra religion.

Architecture and art.

Early metalwork.

In addition to the colossal number of ceramic items, items made of such durable materials as bronze, silver and gold are of exceptional importance for the study of Ancient Iran. A huge number of so-called. Luristan bronzes were found in Luristan, in the Zagros mountains, during illegal excavations of the graves of semi-nomadic tribes. These unparalleled examples included weapons, horse harness, jewelry, and objects depicting scenes from religious life or ritual purposes. Until now, scientists have not come to a consensus as to who and when they were made. In particular, it was suggested that they were created from the 15th century. BC. to 7 century. BC, most likely - by the Kassites or Scythian-Cimmerian tribes. Bronze items continue to be found in the province of Azerbaijan in northwestern Iran. In style, they differ significantly from the Luristan bronzes, although, apparently, both of them belong to the same period. Bronze items from northwestern Iran are similar to recent finds from the same region; for example, the finds of the accidentally discovered treasure in Ziviya and the wonderful gold goblet found during excavations at Hasanlu-Tepe are similar to each other. These items date back to the 9th – 7th centuries. BC, in their stylized ornament and depiction of deities, Assyrian and Scythian influences are visible.

Achaemenid period.

Architectural monuments of the pre-Achaemenid period have not survived, although the reliefs in the palaces of Assyria depict cities in the Iranian Highlands. It is very likely that for a long time even under the Achaemenids, the population of the highlands led a semi-nomadic lifestyle and wooden buildings were typical for the region. Indeed, the monumental structures of Cyrus at Pasargadae, including his own tomb resembling a wooden house with a gabled roof, as well as Darius and his successors at Persepolis and their tombs at nearby Nakshi Rustem are stone replicas of wooden prototypes. In Pasargadae, royal palaces with pillared halls and porticoes were scattered across a shady park. In Persepolis, under Daria, Xerxes and Artaxerxes III, reception halls and royal palaces were built on terraces raised above the surrounding area. At the same time, it was not arches that were characteristic, but columns typical of this period, covered with horizontal beams. Labor, construction and finishing materials, as well as decorations were delivered from all over the country, while the style of architectural details and carved reliefs was a mixture of artistic styles prevailing then in Egypt, Assyria and Asia Minor. During excavations in Susa, parts of the palace complex were found, the construction of which was begun under Darius. The plan of the building and its decoration show a much greater Assyro-Babylonian influence than the palaces at Persepolis.

Achaemenid art was also characterized by a mixture of styles and eclecticism. It is represented by stone carvings, bronze figurines, figurines made of precious metals and jewelry. The best jewelry was discovered in a random find made many years ago, known as the Amu Darya treasure. The bas-reliefs of Persepolis are world famous. Some of them depict kings during solemn receptions or conquering mythical beasts, and along the stairs in the large reception hall of Darius and Xerxes, the royal guard lined up and a long procession of peoples bringing tribute to the lord is visible.

Parthian period.

Most of the architectural monuments of the Parthian period are found west of the Iranian Highlands and have few Iranian features. True, during this period an element appears that will be widely used in all subsequent Iranian architecture. This is the so-called. aivan, a rectangular vaulted hall, open from the side of the entrance. Parthian art was even more eclectic than the art of the Achaemenid period. In different parts of the state, products of different styles were made: in some - Hellenistic, in others - Buddhist, in the third - Greco-Bactrian. Plaster friezes, stone carvings and wall paintings were used for decoration. During this period, glazed earthenware, the forerunner of ceramics, was popular.

Sassanian period.

Many structures from the Sassanian period are in relatively good condition. Most of them were built of stone, although burnt bricks were also used. Among the surviving buildings are royal palaces, temples of fire, dams and bridges, as well as entire city blocks. The place of columns with horizontal ceilings was taken by arches and vaults; square rooms were crowned with domes, arched openings were widely used, many buildings had ayvans. The domes were supported by four tromps, cone-shaped vaulted structures that overlapped the corners of the square rooms. Ruins of palaces have survived in Firuzabad and Servestan, in southwestern Iran, and in Kasr Shirin, on the western edge of the highlands. The largest was the palace in Ctesiphon, on the river. The tiger known as Taki-Kisra. In the center of it there was a giant aivan with a vault 27 in height and a distance between the supports equal to 23 m. More than 20 temples of fire have survived, the main elements of which were square rooms topped with domes and sometimes surrounded by vaulted corridors. As a rule, such temples were erected on high rocks so that the open sacred fire could be seen at a great distance. The walls of the buildings were covered with plaster, on which a pattern made using the notched technique was applied. Numerous reliefs carved into the rocks are found along the shores of reservoirs fed by spring waters. They depict kings before Aguramazda or conquering their enemies.

The pinnacle of Sassanian art is fabrics, silver dishes and cups, most of which were made for the royal court. Scenes of royal hunting, figures of kings in solemn decoration, geometric and floral ornaments are woven on thin brocade. On silver bowls there are images of kings on the throne, battle scenes, dancers, fighting animals and sacred birds made by the technique of extrusion or appliqué. The fabrics, in contrast to the silver dishes, are made in styles that came from the west. In addition, graceful bronze incense burners and wide-necked jugs were found, as well as earthenware with bas-reliefs covered with shiny glaze. The mixing of styles still does not allow us to accurately date the objects found and to determine the place of manufacture of most of them.

Writing and Science.

The oldest writing system of Iran is represented by not yet deciphered inscriptions in the proto-Elamite language, which was spoken in Susa approx. 3000 BC The much more developed written languages ​​of Mesopotamia quickly spread in Iran, and Akkadian was used by the population in Susa and the Iranian Highlands for many centuries.

The Aryans who came to the Iranian Highlands brought with them Indo-European languages, different from the Semitic languages ​​of Mesopotamia. In the Achaemenid period, royal inscriptions carved into the rocks were parallel columns in Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Throughout the Achaemenid period, royal documents and private correspondence were carried out either in cuneiform on clay tablets or in writing on parchment. At the same time, at least three languages ​​were in use - ancient Persian, Aramaic and Elamite.

Alexander the Great introduced the Greek language, his teachers taught about 30,000 young Persians from noble families in the Greek language and military science. On his great campaigns, Alexander was accompanied by a large retinue of geographers, historians and scribes, who recorded everything that happened day after day and got acquainted with the culture of all the peoples who met along the way. Particular attention was paid to navigation and the establishment of maritime communication. The Greek language continued to be used under the Seleucids, while the ancient Persian language was preserved in the Persepolis region. Greek served as the language of trade throughout the Parthian period, but Middle Persian became the main language of the Iranian Highlands, representing a qualitatively new stage in the development of Old Persian. Over the centuries, the Aramaic script, which was used for writing in the ancient Persian language, was transformed into a Pahlavian script with an undeveloped and inconvenient alphabet.

During the Sassanian period, the Middle Persian language became the official and main language of the inhabitants of the highlands. Its writing was based on a variant of the Pahlavi script known as the Pahlavi-Sassanian script. The sacred books of the Avesta were written down in a special way - first in the Zenda, and then in the Avestan language.

In ancient Iran, science did not rise to the heights that it reached in neighboring Mesopotamia. The spirit of scientific and philosophical search was awakened only in the Sassanian period. The most important works have been translated from Greek, Latin and other languages. It was then that Book of Great Deeds, Book of ranks, Iran countries and Book of Kings... Other works from this period have survived only in a later Arabic translation.

The Persian state had a huge impact on the history of the Ancient World. Formed by a small tribal union, the Achaemenid state existed for about two hundred years. The mention of the splendor and power of the country of the Persians is in many ancient sources, including the Bible.

Start

For the first time, mention of the Persians is found in Assyrian sources. In an inscription dated to the 9th century BC. e., contains the name of the land of Parsua. Geographically, this area was located in the Central Zagros region, and during the mentioned period the population of this area paid tribute to the Assyrians. The unification of the tribes did not yet exist. Assyrians mention 27 kingdoms under their control. In the VII century. The Persians, apparently, entered into a tribal union, since references to kings from the Achaemenid tribe appeared in the sources. The history of the Persian state begins in 646 BC, when Cyrus I. became the ruler of the Persians.

During the reign of Cyrus I, the Persians significantly expanded the territories under their control, including taking possession of most of the Iranian plateau. At the same time, the first capital of the Persian state, the city of Pasargadae, was founded. Some of the Persians were engaged in agriculture, some led

The emergence of the Persian state

At the end of the VI century. BC NS. the Persian people were ruled by Cambyses I, who was dependent on the kings of Media. The son of Cambyses, Cyrus II, became the ruler of the settled Persians. Information about the ancient Persian people is scarce and fragmentary. Apparently, the main unit of society was the patriarchal family, headed by a man who had the right to dispose of the life and property of his loved ones. The community, first tribal and later rural, was a powerful force for several centuries. Several communities formed a tribe, several tribes could already be called a people.

The emergence of the Persian state came at a time when the entire Middle East was divided between four states: Egypt, Media, Lydia, Babylonia.

Even in the era of its heyday, Media was actually a fragile tribal union. Thanks to the victories of the king Kiaksar of Media, the state of Urartu and the ancient country of Elam were subdued. The descendants of Kiaxar could not keep the conquests of their great ancestor. The constant war with Babylon required the presence of troops on the border. This weakened the internal policy of the Medes, which the vassals of the Medes king took advantage of.

The reign of Cyrus II

In 553, Cyrus II raised a revolt against the Medes, whom the Persians paid tribute to for several centuries. The war lasted three years and ended with a crushing defeat for the Medes. The capital of Media (Ektabana) became one of the residences of the Persian ruler. Having conquered the ancient country, Cyrus II formally preserved the Median kingdom and assumed the titles of the Median rulers. This is how the formation of the Persian state began.

After the capture of Media, Persia declared itself as a new state in world history, and for two centuries played an important role in the events taking place in the Middle East. In 549-548. the newly formed state conquered Elam and subdued a number of countries that were part of the former Median state. Parthia, Armenia, Hyrcania began to pay tribute to the new Persian rulers.

War with Lydia

Croesus, the ruler of the mighty Lydia, realized what a dangerous enemy the Persian state was. A number of alliances were concluded with Egypt and Sparta. However, the allies did not manage to start full-scale hostilities. Croesus did not want to wait for help and marched alone against the Persians. In the decisive battle near the capital of Lydia - the city of Sardis, Croesus brought his cavalry, which was considered invincible, to the battlefield. Cyrus II set up the warriors astride camels. The horses, seeing unknown animals, refused to obey the riders, the Lydian horsemen were forced to fight on foot. The unequal battle ended with the retreat of the Lydians, after which the city of Sardis was besieged by the Persians. Of the former allies, only the Spartans decided to come to Croesus to help. But while the campaign was being prepared, the city of Sardis fell, and the Persians subjugated Lydia.

Expanding boundaries

Then came the turn of the Greek policies, which were on the territory.After a number of major victories and the suppression of rebellions, the Persians subdued the policies, thereby acquiring the opportunity to use them in battles

At the end of the 6th century, the Persian state expanded its borders to the northwestern regions of India, to the cordons of the Hindu Kush and subdued the tribes living in the basin of the river. Syr Darya. Only after strengthening the borders, suppressing rebellions and establishing royal power, Cyrus II drew attention to the powerful Babylonia. On October 20, 539, the city fell, and Cyrus II became the official ruler of Babylon, and at the same time the ruler of one of the largest powers of the ancient world - the Persian kingdom.

Board of Kambiz

Cyrus died in battle with the Massagetae in 530 BC. NS. His son Kambiz successfully pursued his policy. After thorough preliminary diplomatic preparation, Egypt, the next enemy of Persia, found itself completely alone and could not count on the support of the allies. Cambyses carried out his father's plan and conquered Egypt in 522 BC. NS. Meanwhile, in Persia itself, discontent was ripening and a rebellion broke out. Kambiz hurried home and died on the road under mysterious circumstances. After some time, the ancient Persian state provided an opportunity to gain power to the representative of the younger branch of the Achaemenids - Darius Gistaspus.

The beginning of the reign of Darius

The seizure of power by Darius I caused discontent and murmur in enslaved Babylonia. The leader of the rebels declared himself the son of the last Babylonian ruler and began to be called Nebuchadnezzar III. In December 522 BC. NS. Darius I won. The leaders of the rebels were put to death in public.

Punitive actions distracted Darius, and in the meantime, revolts arose in Media, Elam, Parthia and other areas. It took the new ruler more than a year to pacify the country and restore the state of Cyrus II and Cambyses within its former borders.

Between 518 and 512, the Persian Empire conquered Macedonia, Thrace and parts of India. This time is considered the heyday of the ancient kingdom of the Persians. The state of world importance united dozens of countries and hundreds of tribes and peoples under its rule.

The social structure of Ancient Persia. Darius' reforms

The Persian state of the Achaemenids was distinguished by a wide variety of social structures and customs. Babylonia, Syria, Egypt long before Persia were considered highly developed states, and the recently conquered tribes of nomads of Scythian and Arab origin were still at the stage of a primitive way of life.

Chain of uprisings 522-520 showed the ineffectiveness of the previous government scheme. Therefore, Darius I carried out a number of administrative reforms and created a stable system of state control over the conquered peoples. The result of the reforms was the first ever effective administrative system that served the Achaemenid rulers for more than one generation.

An effective administrative apparatus is a clear example of how Darius ruled the Persian state. The country was divided into administrative-tax districts, which were called satrapies. The sizes of the satrapies were much larger than the territories of the early states, and in some cases coincided with the ethnographic boundaries of the ancient peoples. For example, the satrapy Egypt geographically almost completely coincided with the borders of this state before its conquest by the Persians. The districts were headed by state officials - satraps. Unlike his predecessors, who were looking for their governors among the nobility of the conquered peoples, Darius I put in these positions exclusively nobles of Persian origin.

Functions of governors

Previously, the governor combined both administrative and civil functions. The satrap of the time of Darius had only civil powers, the military authorities did not obey him. The satraps had the right to mint coins, were in charge of the country's economic activities, collecting taxes, and administering court. In peacetime, the satraps were provided with a small personal guard. The army was subject exclusively to military leaders, independent of the satraps.

The implementation of state reforms led to the creation of a large central administrative apparatus headed by the tsarist chancellery. State administration was led by the capital of the Persian state - the city of Susa. The large cities of that time Babylon, Ektabana, Memphis also had their own offices.

Satraps and officials were under the vigilant control of the secret police. In ancient sources, it was called "the ears and eye of the king." The control and supervision of officials was entrusted to the Hazarapat, the leader of the thousand. State correspondence was carried on which was owned by almost all the peoples of Persia.

Culture of the Persian state

Ancient Persia left a great architectural heritage to descendants. The magnificent palace complexes in Susa, Persepolis and Pasargadae made a stunning impression on contemporaries. The royal estates were surrounded by gardens and parks. One of the monuments that have survived to this day is the tomb of Cyrus II. Many similar monuments, which appeared hundreds of years later, took as a basis the architecture of the tomb of the Persian king. The culture of the Persian state contributed to the glorification of the king and the strengthening of the royal power among the conquered peoples.

The art of ancient Persia combined the artistic traditions of the Iranian tribes, intertwined with elements of the Greek, Egyptian, Assyrian cultures. Among the objects that have come down to descendants, there are many ornaments, bowls and vases, various cups decorated with exquisite paintings. A special place in the finds is occupied by numerous seals with images of kings and heroes, as well as various animals and fantastic creatures.

Economic development of Persia during the time of Darius

The nobility occupied a special position in the Persian kingdom. The nobles owned large land holdings in all the conquered territories. Huge plots were placed at the disposal of the "benefactors" of the tsar for personal services to him. The owners of such lands had the right to manage, transfer allotments to their descendants, and they were also entrusted with the exercise of judicial power over their subjects. The land use system was widely used, in which the plots were called allotments for a horse, bow, chariot, etc. The king distributed such lands to his soldiers, for which their owners had to serve in the army as horsemen, archers, charioteers.

But still huge tracts of land were in the direct possession of the king himself. They were usually rented out. The products of agriculture and cattle breeding were accepted as payment for them.

In addition to the lands, the canals were in the immediate tsarist power. The managers of the royal property rented them out and collected taxes for the use of water. For irrigation of fertile soils, a fee was charged, reaching 1/3 of the landowner's harvest.

Manpower of Persia

Slave labor was used in all sectors of the economy. The bulk of them were usually prisoners of war. Collateral slavery, when people sold themselves, did not spread. Slaves had a number of privileges, for example, the right to have their own seals and participate in various transactions as full partners. A slave could redeem himself by paying a certain quota, and also be a plaintiff, witness or defendant in legal proceedings, of course, not against his masters. The practice of hiring hired workers for a certain amount of money was widespread. The labor of such workers was especially widespread in Babylonia, where they dug canals, arranged roads, and reaped crops from royal or temple fields.

Darius's financial policy

The main source of income for the treasury was taxes. In 519, the king approved the main system of state taxes. Taxes were calculated for each satrapy, taking into account its territory and land fertility. The Persians, as a nation-conqueror, did not pay monetary tax, but were not exempt from tax in kind.

Various monetary units that continued to exist even after the unification of the country brought a lot of inconvenience, therefore in 517 BC. NS. the king introduced a new gold coin called the darik. The medium of exchange was a silver shekle, which cost 1/20 of a gift and served at that time. On the reverse of both coins there was an image of Darius I.

Transport highways of the Persian state

The spread of the road network facilitated the development of trade between the various satrapies. The royal road of the Persian state began in Lydia, crossed Asia Minor and passed through Babylon, and from there to Susa and Persepolis. The sea routes laid by the Greeks were successfully used by the Persians in trade and for the transfer of military power.

The sea expeditions of the ancient Persians are also known, for example, the journey of the sailor Skilaka to the Indian shores in 518 BC. NS.

Persians, Indo-Europeans. people who lived in the southeast. Elam. The founder of the Persian kingdom (dependent on the Medes) in Anshan is Chishpish, the son of Achaemen, therefore, for other Pers. tsar. the dynasty established the name of the Achaemenids. see Cyrus II the Great (559 530 BC ... Brockhaus Bible Encyclopedia

Modern encyclopedia

PERSES, Persians, units. Persian, Persian, husband. The people that make up the main population of Iran (still the name of Persia). Ushakov's explanatory dictionary. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

PERS, s, units Persian, ah, husband. and (obsolete) Persian, ah, husband. Former name of Iranians; now the name of the nation of farces, which makes up about half of the population of Iran. | wives Persian, and. | adj. Persian, oh, oh. Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary. S.I. Ozhegov ... Ozhegov's Explanatory Dictionary

Population of Persia. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910 ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Noun., Number of synonyms: 1 Persians (1) ASIS Synonym Dictionary. V.N. Trishin. 2013 ... Synonym dictionary

Persians- (self-names farces, Irani) people with a total number of 28,750 thousand people, living mainly on the territory of Iran (28,000 thousand people). Other countries of settlement: Iraq 150 thousand people, USA 130 thousand people, Saudi Arabia 100 thousand people, Kuwait 85 thousand ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Farsi (self-called Irani, plural Iranians), a nation comprising approx. half of the population of Iran (according to the 1st general census of the country's population at the end of 1956, P. about 9 million hours, according to an estimate of 10.5 million hours in 1963). They speak Persian (Farsi) language, ... ... Soviet Historical Encyclopedia

Ov; pl. Nation, the main population of Iran (Persia); representatives of this nation. ◁ Persian, a; m. Persianka, and; pl. genus. nok, dates. nkam; f. Persian (see). * * * Persians (Farsi, self-designation Irani), people in Iran (about 21.3 million people). General ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Persians- PERS, ov, pl (units Persian, a and Ustar. Persian, a, m). The people, the main population of the central and eastern part of Iran (until 1935 Persia), the state in the South-West. Asia; people belonging to this nation, farces; Persian Farsi, Iranian group ... ... Explanatory dictionary of Russian nouns

Books

• Persians. Book one of the historical novel "Scythians", Nikolai Vasilievich Sokolov. The first book of the historical novel "Scythians" tells about the coup d'etat of 522 BC in Persia. After the assassination of the king of Bardia, revolts and uprisings began in the country, and ... eBook
• Wild Persians, Panov Vadim. Mysterious disappearances, strange deaths, cruel revenge on criminals ... St. Petersburg was swept by a wave of high-profile, seemingly unrelated crimes, the traces of which ...

Persians, or Iranians, are the indigenous inhabitants of Persia (the current official name of the country is the Islamic Republic of Iran), the people of the Iranian group of the Indo-European family. Persians are the ethnic majority in Iran (51% of the country's more than 66 million population); they live mainly in the central and southern regions of Iran. A significant part of civil servants is recruited from the Persians. Outside Iran, Persians live mainly in neighboring countries - in Iraq, in the west of Afghanistan, in Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. After the political upheavals of the second half of the twentieth century. a large group of Iranians emigrated to Europe and the United States. Today, a large number of immigrants from Iran also live in our country and in the southern states of the CIS. Along with the Afghans, they trade in the markets, conclude small wholesale deals. Many Persians abroad are engaged in religious propaganda.

Modern Iran is a multinational country. The main national minorities are Azerbaijanis (24% of the country's population), Kurds (7%), Gilans and Mazendaranians (8% in total), Arabs (3), Lurs (2), Baluchis (2), Turkmens (2), Turks (1), Bakhtiyars, Qashqays, Tajiks and other nationalities (in total, about 2% of the population). Formed as a state of the Persians, Iran in antiquity and in the Middle Ages pursued an active policy of conquest, the Persian rulers united under their rule multilingual peoples and tribes. In the VII century. Persia was conquered by the Arabs. They brought with them Islam, which has become the dominant religion: nowadays 99% of Iranians are Muslims. At the same time, 89% of Iranians profess Shiite Islam, 10% are Sunnis.
The poem "Confessions of a Shiite" by the Russian poetess Lyudmila Avdeeva conveys the attitude of an ordinary Iranian:

There is no afterlife in life, I know, rich.
There is justice, all joys are near.
And the beautiful Shade will be with me.
And here on earth I don't stand her gaze.

Here our family is the poorest of all in the quarter.
I dare not dream of giving Shade to me.
It’s hungry to live here, there’s no work for so many years.
Any unemployed person will be happy there.

There are rivers of mast, there are mountains of meat.
Pick up fruit for dinner from the Garden of Eden.
Our neighbor Ali is all dissatisfied with something.
He wants to study, but the house is not completed ...

Shia Islam, professed by only about one tenth of all Muslims in the world, for the Persians is the basis of the philosophy of life.
Since 1979, in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the leadership of the state has been in the hands of Shiite theologians. The Islamic regime created a state unprecedented in modern history, in which all aspects of life were subordinated to the ideas of Shiite Islam. The political, legal, moral, aesthetic, ethical, cultural and philosophical views of the overwhelming majority of Persians today are determined by the norms of Islam.
Love for God, clear and firm adherence to the norms and traditions of Islam is the main virtue singled out by the inhabitants of modern Iran when emphasizing the positive character traits of a particular person. Of course, these qualities are not limited to the set of positive characteristics of the Persian.
Hospitality is a hallmark of Iranians. A polite welcome is the minimum that a foreigner who comes to this country for the first time can count on. The accusation of inhospitality is one of the worst in Iran. In any home you will be greeted with the words "Hosh Amadid!" ("Welcome!"). The guest will be given the best place at the table and will be fed the best and most varied dishes. Even if this is the house of the poorest Persian, neighbors will help him meet the guest. For the host, there is nothing more pleasant than hearing from the guest that the efforts were not in vain, that he was amazed by the reception, the richness of the dishes and their taste.

Women at the demonstration carry a portrait President Khatami

Generally, benevolence is one of the calling cards of the Iranians. Communication with people from the Persian is imbued with respect for the interlocutor. When addressing each other, the Iranians use the words "aha" (lord), "saheb" (lord), "baradar" (brother), while adding "aziz" (dear), "mokhtaram" (respected). People of equal status hug each other and shake hands when they meet. When meeting with the elders, the Persians bow low. When showing respect, gratitude, and attention, Iranians often put their right hand to their hearts. Sociability, courtesy and politeness are the most frequently manifested communicative qualities of the Persians.
The highest moral principles of Iranians include veneration of deceased ancestors, respect for elders and old people. The elders, according to the generally accepted opinion, are the personification of the clan, family. The general well-being depends on the success of everyone. Kinship, clan and tribal relationships cement the nation. Compatriots who moved from the village to the city earlier than others help the newcomers in finding jobs and arranging their everyday life. A tradition reminiscent of the Soviet subbotnik is widespread among the Iranians. Residents of one block, village or street collectively help their friend to build a new house. This event becomes a true holiday of labor. Singers and musicians come to support the workers. At the end of the work, everyone is treated to pilaf and sweets.

One of the distinguishing qualities of most Persians is the pursuit of beauty, love of art. After the proclamation of the Islamic Republic in 1979, the clergy pursued a policy of subordinating culture and art to the task of Islamizing Iranian society. “Western art” has become forbidden. This slowed down the cultural enrichment of the country from the outside, but at the same time stimulated the rise of folk art. Among ordinary Iranians, there are many people endowed with talents of musicians, poets, reciters, artists. The Persians have a great sense of humor. A joke, said on time and at the right place, allows you to survive adversity.
Iranians are superstitious. Muslims in Iran live in a world of constant mystical perception of the world. They believe in evil spirits, talismans, witchcraft, fortune-telling, they believe that stones, trees, buildings can be sacred. Bread, water, crops, roads, sky, fire are also considered sacred. The spirits of the dead are considered to be terrible; they "wander in search of the living" and can enter them, especially women. Therefore, the Persians are afraid to appear in those places where, according to their belief, evil spirits live. Amulets designed to protect against the evil eye and damage are widespread among ordinary Iranians. Amulets are hung around the neck of a newborn child, boy, beautiful girl and newlyweds, as it is believed that these people are the least protected from the "wiles of an evil spirit." In the villages, they believe in ghosts, witches. Interpreters of dreams are very popular.
When communicating with the Persians, it is necessary to take into account, first of all, the peculiarities of their cultural and religious development. It is easier to earn the respect of the Persians if you know the names of their great compatriots. Quoting Omar Khayyam, Saadi, Hafiz and other Iranian poets and philosophers will raise your credibility in the eyes of the interlocutor. But a Gentile should avoid discussing religious topics with an Iranian. An Iranian will never tell you to your face that you offended him by touching the thin string of his soul. However, in the future, such an offense will not be forgotten by them and can cause a cooling down or even an end to the relationship.
During the Muslim fast in the month of Ramadan, the way of life in Iranian families changes, it becomes more measured and slowed down. The working day is shrinking. Important cases are postponed until a later time. There is no point in waiting for a Muslim to quickly fulfill your request. A foreigner who is in Iran during fasting should not smoke, eat or drink during the day in the presence of local residents. Irritation can also be caused by the appearance of a European woman who does not cover her legs, arms and face from the views of strangers. The state of lethargy that Muslims find themselves in during fasting continues for some time after it ends. The first days after fasting are considered the most dangerous. They account for the peak of road traffic accidents in Tehran and other large cities. Drivers simply do not have time to adapt to the conditions of the sharply increased pace of life and the increase in the number of cars on the roads.
Despite the fact that Article 20 of the Iranian Constitution proclaims the equality of all members of society before the law, Iranian women are practically deprived of many rights. Legally, the man is regarded as the head of the family, the woman in the family is subordinate to the man. Only a man has the right to file for divorce. In the event of the death of a spouse, children are transferred to the family of the deceased husband for upbringing, and the woman loses the right to her children. In the event of a divorce, the children also stay with the father. All women, Iranian and foreign, in public places and institutions are required to wear a hijab - a cape over their heads. During the Iranian-Iraqi war 1980-1988. In Iran, the slogan was spread: "Iranian woman, hijab is your trench!" There are separate places for men and women in transport and in public places. Women are not allowed to engage in many professions (in particular, there cannot be women singers, women judges, women archaeologists or geologists). The law allows a Muslim to marry a woman of another religion, but prohibits an Iranian woman from marrying a foreigner if he is not a Muslim. An Iranian woman's freedom of movement is also limited by a number of sharia provisions. A trip abroad can only take place if one of two prerequisites is met: accompanied by an adult man - a family member or with the written permission of the husband or father (for an unmarried woman).

Criminal penalties for women are more severe than those provided for by the criminal code for such crimes for men. In February 2003, two women were hanged for the murder of one man, and two more received life sentences.
Of course, not everything in Iran is as gloomy as the Western media portray. Life in the country continues. In recent years, there has been a certain liberalization in the way of life of the Iranians. Of course, on television they do not show "light porn", as in our country. But it is safe to say that the overwhelming majority in Iranian society does not strive for such "freedoms." The ability of Iranians to easily and philosophically endure the hardships of life is the pivot that allows this nation to develop, moving in the same direction with all of humanity. Being different from Europeans or Americans is not a reason to declare people they know little about “outlawed”.
Iran is a multinational state in which religion performs a large number of functions, and the main one is to unite people.