At first glance, there is nothing in common between play and work. Labor - behind this word you can hear it: difficult, difficulties that must be overcome. And the word "game" evokes associations with something pleasant, easy, and exciting. However, the opposition is by no means obvious. One may recall that they say about the work of a high professional: he works playfully.

There are several points of view on the question of what labor is. Supporters of one of them understand labor extremely broadly: in their opinion, any conscious human activity is equivalent to labor. Where there is human interaction with the surrounding world, especially with a variety of objects, we can talk about work.

Proponents of a different point of view consider labor as one of the types of activity, but far from the only one. Indeed, labor is characterized by such a feature of activity as the manifestation of activity in actions, and the activity is expedient. About another senseless semblance of labor one has to hear offensive: "monkey work". The work necessarily has such features as practical usefulness, the presence of a result. "After all, if the stars are lit, it means that someone needs it." If no one needs it, then there is no need to make efforts. Whether material values \u200b\u200bor spiritual wealth will be the results of labor, labor activity is subordinated to their creation.

Another feature characteristic of labor activity is the originality of its motives. Work is always aimed at achieving pre-programmed expected results. True, the effect obtained can be better or worse, closer to the concept or further from it, but it cannot be absurd work. It is difficult to imagine spending the effort, realizing that the result is not what you are striving for.

What gives reason to hope that the programmed result will be achieved with an optimal cost of effort? Skill, skill and knowledge are absolutely essential for the success of work. Any work requires such components - physical, intellectual, work of a craftsman, farmer, artist, creator. In any labor activity, its participants solve some specific task, plan their actions, envisage the result. In its best examples, work cannot do without initiative and creativity.

We can summarize. Labor is a type of human activity aimed at achieving a practically useful result. It is carried out under the influence of necessity and ultimately has the goal of transforming the objects of the surrounding world, turning them into products to satisfy the numerous and varied needs of people. At the same time, work transforms the person himself, improves it as a subject of labor activity and as a person.

A GAME

Play, in contrast to work, is not so much aimed at the result as at the process itself. The game accompanies humanity throughout history, intertwined with magic, religious cult, art, sports, military exercises.

Who doesn't know what a game is? Nevertheless, there is no single definition, recognized by the majority of scientists. With this word, time combines a very wide range of actions (compare: children's play, playing on the stock exchange ... - this series can be continued).

Scientists argue about the origin of play, whether it is a human-specific activity, is universal. In other words: are animals playing, cars?

Supporters of the biological origin of play argue that play is characteristic of many living organisms, and the more complex an organism is, the more diverse its play as an activity. At the heart of the game of animals are instincts: the instinct of struggle, power, guardianship: some scientists attach a special role to sexual desires, as well as the innate desire for liberation, unification, repetition. The guesses made by proponents of such points of view are very interesting; the material presented to illustrate the behavior of animals is diverse, but it does not provide an opportunity to consistently and conclusively explain the connection between a person's game and his social essence.

The German philosopher and poet F. Schiller owns the following statement: "A person plays only when she is, in the full sense of the word, a person, and he is completely human only when he plays."

Without dwelling on the details here, we will give only the final conclusions of scientists, specially studied the origin and development of the game as an activity among different peoples of the Earth. In its expanded form, the game continues to live in childhood, representing a necessary form of the child's life in the form of games-manipulations with objects, plot (including role-playing), outdoor games, games in the learning process. In the adult world, complex types of play are being replaced, on the one hand, by art, and on the other hand, by sports. For people of creative specialties, play is becoming one of the main types of human activity. However, having become the main work of life, play takes on a qualitatively different meaning than the child's previous play.

The most essential feature of play as an activity is its two-dimensionality. On the one hand, the player performs a real action, on the other, many moments of this activity are conditional in nature, allow one to escape from the real situation, to act in imaginary circumstances (it is worth saying the magic "like". And the chair will become a horse, and the dirty Cinderella will turn into the princess).

The game in its developed form includes roles that the players take on. Role is compliance with the accepted (conditional) norms of behavior in a game situation. In other words, the role is the identification of the player with the depicted person, object, character. To fulfill the role, the player must resort to actions in accordance with the rules of the game. The game uses objects or their substitutes, symbols, conventional signs in a special way.

All these conditional components of the game are possible, since the player simultaneously believes and does not believe that the situation that is being played out is real. The duality of this behavior makes play akin to art. Art, with special, artistic means, interprets various aspects of human life and activity and tells people about them, forcing them to experience, accept or not accept the artist's understanding of the meaning of life. Play, like art, offers a solution not in a practical, but in a conventional, symbolic sphere, which, however, can later be used as a kind of behavior model. Art offers, as it were, typical forms of resolving conflicts between characters, and play makes it possible to simulate specific situations and acts as a form of including a child in the world of human relations and actions.

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The “game of questions” is a rather entertaining entertainment that will help you get to know any person, as they say, from the inside. This is a great way to start a conversation with a stranger and a good opportunity to reveal an unexpected side to a longtime friend. After the game, it will seem to you that you have literally read this person and have known him for a hundred years.

We are in website we suggest you take interesting people "weakly" and play this game with them.

• The interlocutors take turns asking each other questions. There are absolutely any questions: unexpected, personal, provocative, but most importantly, suggesting a detailed answer, and not just agreement or denial. Questions can be turned in any direction that interests you (below we have provided 30 examples with which you can get started to get a taste of the game).
• But at the same time, it is worth remembering that the retaliatory move may be even more unexpected, and you should not go on completely forbidden topics either.
• You cannot answer in monosyllables. “Yes, no, I don’t know, I don’t remember” - they are not accepted, you need to give the most complete answers.
• By prior arrangement, you can enable the option "skip the question", but only once.

1. What's your biggest fear?
2. What are the most unusual people you've met on planes and trains?
3. Is there a negative book or movie character that you like?
4. Has it ever happened that you once became very disappointed in a person?
5. Do you have any useless talent?
6. Tell us about your funniest date ever.
7. What cruel truth was told to your face?
8. Can you say that 5 years ago you were a completely different person?
9. What was the most ridiculous joke you ever heard?
10. What is your sweetest memory of the past year?
11. What do you regret the most of your actions?
12. For what reason did you last cry?
13. What are you most ashamed of?
14. Is there a movie that made you feel really uncomfortable after watching it?
15. What was your nickname at school?
16. Are you satisfied with how your parents raised you? What would you change?
17. What was the scariest and most dangerous moment in your life?
18. In your opinion, which of your friends is absolutely happy and why?
19. What advice would you give to a complete stranger 18 years old?
20. What little thing would make you happier right now?
21. What annoys you in the behavior of others?
22. Have you ever selflessly helped a stranger?
23. Who have your classmates become?
24. Is there a book that has changed your outlook on life?
25. Was there a moment in your life so happy that you realized that you didn't need anything else?
26. What was the most interesting trip you've had?
27. What genre of cinema impresses you the most?
28. What was the hardest choice in your life?
29. Tell me your most memorable dream.
30. The craziest thing you've ever done in your life.

The most socially dangerous type of deviant behavior is crime. A crime is understood as a deliberately committed socially dangerous act prohibited by the criminal code under threat of punishment.

The understanding of what is considered a crime, what is the danger of different types of crime and, accordingly, what is the nature of the due sanctions, has changed greatly throughout the development of mankind. So, for archaic societies, the death of an individual was not something extraordinary. As the French philosopher René Girard notes, “by sowing the seeds of death everywhere, a god, an ancestor or a mythical hero, whether by dying themselves or by putting to death their chosen sacrifice, bring people new life. Is it any wonder if death is ultimately perceived as an older sister or even the source and mother of all life? " At the same time, religious crimes - an expression of disobedience or disrespect to the gods - were recognized as the most serious and entailing the most severe punishment.

The idea of \u200b\u200bwhat constitutes a crime developed only in the 19th century. in Europe and from European countries, others began to be broadcast. However, in many countries of the modern world, non-European ideas about crimes persist, which often leads to mutual misunderstanding, accusations, on the one hand, of human rights violations, on the other hand, of cultural and ideological pressure, and a threat to cultural identity.

When typologizing crimes, different criteria are used: the purpose of the criminal act, the identity of the offender, the method of crime, objects of criminal encroachments.

So, depending on the purpose of the criminal act, there are:

• - mercenary crimes;
• - crimes without a selfish motive (criminal negligence, a crime in a state of passion).

The bulk (75%) of mercenary crimes in modern Russia are committed by so-called situational criminals who act depending on the situation: the socio-economic situation in the country is deteriorating - their number is increasing; the situation is improving - there are fewer of them. These are ordinary citizens who, under the right circumstances, steal everything that can be stolen. The category of mercenary also includes various economic crimes: illegal business, "laundering" of stolen money, counterfeiting, smuggling, tax evasion, bribery of officials.

The criterion "personality of the offender" can be interpreted in different ways. In this regard, the following types of crimes are considered:

• - juvenile delinquency;
• - crimes of fully capable people;
• - crimes committed independently, alone;
• - organized crime;
• - crimes of "ordinary" people;
• - the crimes of the rich and powerful.

Juvenile delinquency is considered a serious problem: although the direct harm from it is not too great, it is an indicator of how crime will change in the future. It is known that approximately 60% of professional criminals, thieves and fraudsters started this path at the age of 16. Thus, juvenile delinquency is always a reserve of adult delinquency.

As the analysis of crime in the Central Federal District shows, the total ratio of solved crimes per 100 thousand people of the population aged 14 and over is approximately the same as the rates of juvenile crimes per population aged 14-17. In 14 regions, the criminal activity of adolescents exceeds the criminal activity of the adult population, especially significantly in Ivanovskaya (by 89.1%), Kostroma and Lipetsk (2.2 times), Ryazan (by 92.8%), Tverskaya (by 56%) , Tula (by 48.7%) and Yaroslavl (2.6 times) 1.

This changes the nature of juvenile delinquency. If earlier - 10-20 years ago - the basis of juvenile crime was theft and hooliganism from boys, theft and prostitution from girls, then in post-Soviet Russia minors are increasingly involved in the drug and arms trade, racketeering, pimping, attacks on businessmen and foreigners, fraud.

People from the poor make up the bulk of prisoners in prisons, but criminal activities are by no means exclusively their lot. Many rich and powerful people commit crimes whose consequences can be far greater than those of the petty crimes of the poor.

In 1939, the term "white-collar crime" was proposed to denote crimes committed by respectable people with a high social status in the course of their professional duties. The term was first used by Edwin Sutherland, a member of the American Association of Sociologists. At the annual meeting of the organization, Sutherland announced that he was concerned about the over-concern of criminologists with the problem of street crime and their ignorance of crimes committed by more affluent members of society.

Although there are many different definitions of white collar crime today, most experts agree that this phenomenon is a collection of nonviolent crimes committed in the course of business, by individuals, groups, or corporations for the purpose of making a profit. The types of white-collar crime include fraud, bankruptcy fraud, bribery, computer fraud, credit card fraud, making counterfeit money and securities, embezzlement of corporate funds, identity theft (using other people's financial documents), securities transactions, during which uses inside information, insurance fraud, money laundering, obstruction of justice, perjury, tax evasion, economic espionage, artificial price inflation.

According to the FBI, white-collar criminals cause damage in excess of US $ 300 billion per year to the United States. Despite their relatively small number (according to the FBI, white-collar crime accounts for approximately 3.5% of all crimes committed in the United States), the average white-collar crime costs victims much more than ordinary theft or robbery. White-collar crimes today account for 42% of all computer-assisted crimes.

Many experts expect the number of such crimes to grow. According to the National) "Center for Fraud Research, arrests for white-collar crimes, especially fraud and embezzlement of corporate funds, have skyrocketed over the past few years, while arrests for violent crimes continue to decline. The center concluded. that about one in every three families in the US is the victim of white-collar criminals, but only about 40% of those affected report the crime to the police For this and some other reasons, white-collar crime rates are much more difficult to measure than other segments of the population. Most crimes of this kind do not appear in official statistics at all.

Depending on the object of the crime, the following types are distinguished:

• - crimes against the person;
• - crimes against property. By the criterion "method of crime":
• - violent crimes (murder, rape, banditry, terrorism);
• - crimes without victims (drug trafficking, prostitution).

Violent crimes are the most dangerous type, as they pose a threat to the life and health of people. The underlying aggression is usually subdivided into instrumental (aimed at achieving a certain goal - forcing to pay off a debt, for example) and unmotivated (acting as an end in itself). A kind of crime is the so-called victimless crimes. These are actions performed without directly harming others, but regarded as illegal (drug use, various types of gambling, prostitution).

Discuss in the workshop how accurate is the concept of victimless crime. Who can be called victims of this kind of crime. What arguments can be given to support and refute the opinion that the criminal prosecution of such crimes should be canceled.

Analyze the behavior of the protagonist of the novel A Clockwork Orange by E. Burgess. Describe on the proposed grounds the nature of the criminal behavior described in the novel.

One of the most important in applied terms is the question of the causes of crime: understanding these causes is the first step towards crime prevention. Representatives of many sciences - lawyers, sociologists, psychologists, economists, doctors - are busy looking for an answer to this question, but so far one of the existing theories has not been able to offer a comprehensive explanation for all types of crimes.

Biomedical theories - historically, the first attempts to explain crimes on the basis of the natural-conditioned tendency of some people to them. The essence of the approach boils down to the following: crime is the same natural phenomenon as birth, illness, death. For example, the Italian criminalist Cesare Lombroso in the 1870s. came to the conclusion that some people are born with criminal inclinations. In the works of Lombroso and his followers, the first classification of criminals was developed:

• - born criminals;
• - mentally ill criminals;
• - criminals by passion;
• - random criminals.

Representatives of the biological approach argued that there are "born criminals" with special anatomical, physiological and mental properties that make them, as it were, fatally doomed from birth to a crime. The signs of a "born criminal" include: irregular skull shape, bifurcation of the frontal bone, small jaggedness of the edges of the cranial bones, facial asymmetry, irregularities in the brain structure, dull sensitivity to pain. The characterological features of the criminal and his inherent pathological personality traits are as follows: highly developed vanity, cynicism, lack of guilt, the ability to repentance and remorse, aggressiveness, vindictiveness, a tendency to cruelty and violence, to exaltation and demonstrative forms of behavior, a tendency to distinguish signs of a special communities (tattoos, speech jargon).

Inborn crime was first explained by atavism: a criminal was understood as a savage who could not adapt to the rules and norms of a civilized community. Later, inborn criminality was seen as a form of "moral insanity" and, finally, as a form of epilepsy. The fight against crime, therefore, should be carried out, according to Lombroso, by physical destruction or life-long isolation of "congenital" criminals (fortunately, their anthropological originality and characteristic psychological signs "allow" to do this in advance, without waiting for the realization of criminal inclinations).

Subsequently, ideas about a biological predisposition to crime have been sharply criticized.

Psychological theories. Psychological theories of crime, like biomedical ones, associate criminal inclinations with a certain type of personality, in particular with the characteristics of the individual's character (often with the presence of pathological tendencies).

For reference: in psychological literature, character is understood as a set of relatively stable properties of an individual, in which the methods of his behavior and emotional response are expressed (that is, character determines the dynamic, not content-rich aspects of the personality - "how?", But not "what?" does a person - and, accordingly, can manifest itself in different types of human activity). The most interesting descriptions of characters have developed not even strictly within the framework of psychology, but, rather, at the junction of psychology and psychiatry. Among the authors of the existing typologies of characters are K. Jung, P. B. Gannushkin, K. Leonhard, A. E. Lichko and others.

In particular, AE Lichko's typology offers descriptions of not only pathological, but also "normal" characters - the so-called acceptance (extreme variants of the norm, implying a sharpening of individual character traits). Here is a brief description of them:

• - the hyperthymic type is almost always distinguished by a good, elevated mood, striving for leadership, communication;
• - for the cyclothymic type, mood swings are characteristic;
• - a person with a labile type of accentuation is a subtly sensitive nature;
• - the astheno-neurotic type of accentuation is associated with fatigue, irritability, hypochondriacia;
• - a sensitive type of accentuation is distinguished by a great impressionability and a sense of one's own inferiority;
• - the psychasthenic type is distinguished by anxious suspiciousness, a tendency to introspection;
• - the schizoid type is characterized by isolation, difficulty in establishing contacts, closeness to others;
• - the epileptoid type of accentuation is manifested in a maliciously melancholy mood, in attacks of strong and prolonged affects;
• - the hysterical character is egocentric, theatrical, craves attention to himself;
• - an unstable type of acceptance is marked by laziness, idleness, craving for pleasure and entertainment.

Some of the accentuations (for example, schizoid, psychasthenic, sensitive types) are extremely rarely associated with criminal inclinations, and among those who have committed certain crimes, especially of a violent nature, such persons are almost never found. But they are often found among others.

For example, consider hyperthymic and hysteroid accentuation.

So, a person with hyperthymic accentuation is distinguished by "a good mood, high vitality, splashing energy, uncontrollable activity. Constantly striving for leadership ... A good sense of the new is combined with instability of interests, and great sociability - with promiscuity in choosing acquaintances. setting ".

What fate is predetermined by such a character?

"Already at school they draw attention to themselves by the fact that, having generally good abilities, they usually study poorly ... In addition, they easily dissolve and go out of obedience, becoming leaders of comrades in all collective pranks ... With great difficulty they endure they, with their inclinations and military service, often violating discipline and being subjected to all kinds of punishments. The early awakening intense sexual desire leads to numerous erotic excesses. Often they turn out, in addition, unstable to alcohol consumption ... For all that, they are not often omitted. to the bottom: enterprising and resourceful, such subjects usually get out of the most difficult situations, showing truly amazing dexterity and resourcefulness.And in adulthood, their life path does not go in a straight line, but all the time makes big zigzags from steep climbs to lightning falls. Many of them know extremely great achievements and successes: witty inventors whether they are successful politicians, clever swindlers, they sometimes jokingly climb to the very top of the social ladder, but rarely stay on it for a long time - for this they lack seriousness and constancy. "

Here is one example on the theme of ups and downs, borrowed from the writer A. Azolsky.

"About Strigunkov ... At the age of 4 he wrote and read (not a single literate in the family), for whatever he undertakes, he will master it immediately. Parents died peacefully, they knew that their only son would not be lost. And he made receivers in the orphanage, and caught Europe , annoyed the teachers and learned to speak purely in three languages. But the naval service did not go. He graduated from the school and was appointed commander of the "sea hunter" on a submarine "). Court of honor - and get out of the fleet. He came to the research institute as a senior technician, became an engineer of the second department, then jumped to the scientific and technical information department - head: languages \u200b\u200bcame in handy. And again - vodka. Rolled down. Three months not he could find a job.Then he carried a bucket of mortar at a construction site, two weeks later he was already an electrician there.A month later - a foreman ... soon a sign appeared: construction is being carried out by such and such a SMU.responsible - senior foreman Strigunkov M.L. Sign about did not last long. The responsible foreman found himself in the boiler room of a neighboring house, poking around with a poker ... And now - a supply agent now, puffs on a cigarette in the director's office. "

Of course, by the nature of his work, a psychiatrist has to deal with the shadow sides of life - drug addiction, antisocial activities. Such paths lead to the psychiatric clinic of hyperthymics.

Whatever symbolic meaning Ken Kesey puts into the image of the protagonist, the portrait of an uncontrollable person becoming socially dangerous is drawn by him for sure. "McMurphy Rendle Patrick. Transferred by state authorities from Pendleton Agricultural Colony for examination and possible treatment. Thirty-five years. Never married. Cross" For Distinguished Service "in Korea led the escape of prisoners of war from the camp. Then dismissed with deprivation of rights and privileges for failure Then there were street fights and brawls in bars, was repeatedly detained in a drunken state, arrests for disorderly conduct, assault, gambling - many times - and one arrest for seducing a young girl ...

This does not mean that all hypertensives are potential criminals and innately immoral people. It is among them that there are genuine heroes and (!) Multi-talented people.

A completely different type of behavior and, accordingly, different types of possible deviations characterize individuals with hysterical accentuation. The attention of others is something they cannot live without. Admiration, surprise, reverence, care, envy, hatred (but not indifference!) Are external currents that recharge the hysteroid, lead to the highest point, the apogee of a happy attitude.

At the same time, they are so deeply self-perceived, so get used to the image that the outer mask becomes for some time literally their flesh, fuses with internal sensations, is experienced physiologically, up to the ability to arbitrarily cause burn marks on the skin at the moment of introducing herself to Jeanne d'Arc ...

"Such are the numerous swindlers who pretend to be significant people traveling incognito, such are the charlatans who assume the titles of doctors, engineers and often manage to keep others under the hypnosis of their deceit for a while, such are the cheaters and forgers of documents, such are, finally, even many small street swindlers who lure money from gullible people with stories of misfortunes that have happened to them, promising with the help of acquaintances to provide some important service. Their self-control is often amazing: they lie so self-confidently, not embarrassed by anything, so easily twisted, even when they are pinned to Many do not lose heart when they are caught.Krenelip tells about one such swindler who was in the clinic on probation and, returning but the end of his term in prison, so impressed with his proud lordly appearance the policeman sent for him to accompany him, that made the latter helpfully carry his things ".

They live in an atmosphere of lies, distortion of real relationships. Anything that does not fit into the cozy bed of a convenient fiction is to be denied. Deliberation, the inventedness of one's image and the image of the world around us is a childish form of a beneficial interpretation of events, protection from mental trauma. Often, in order to restore the lost peace of mind, the hysteroid must unbalance others. He provokes a scandal, but when the scandal flares up, there is no more cold-blooded person in his heat than him. The opponent, who drives him out of the circle of attention, tries to eliminate by any means.

So, the psychological theories of crime, although they contain a rational grain, are able to explain some aspects of crimes, but they leave open questions about the motivation of criminal activity and, moreover, they do not clarify anything in the problems of the meaning of deviant behavior of an individual for a broader sociocultural context - in questions of cultural originality and historical variability of the types and number of crimes.

Sociological theories. One of the most important is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe sociocultural relativity of "normal" and "deviant", including illegal, behavior.

We consider it necessary to recognize this idea for the following reasons.

First, the very understanding of what constitutes normal and criminal behavior varies considerably in different cultural contexts.

For example, a number of cultures strongly encourage the aggressiveness of their representatives, starting from a very early age. So, but the testimony of anthropologists who studied the "primitive" cultures in the fierce Yanomami tribe that lived in the upper Orinoco, during games mothers incite their sons, pull their hair and tease. When an offended child seeks protection from the mother, she gives him a stick in his hand and offers to take revenge on the offender.

Even if you do not refer to such exotic examples, it is easy to notice that in modern societies there are many subcultures and behavior that is considered the norm in one subculture can be regarded as a deviation in another.

Secondly, there are obvious differences in the structure, goals and motivation of criminal and, more broadly, deviant behavior between representatives of different social groups, even if they have a single cultural identity. Thus, pickpocketing or burglary is carried out mainly by people from the poorest segments of the population, while embezzlement or tax evasion is a "privilege" of people with a high level of wealth.

So, let's turn to the main sociological theories of deviant behavior and, among the first, consider the functionalist approach manifested in the works of Emile Durkheim and Robert K. Merton. The concept of anomie becomes key here.

Anomie (Greek a - negative particle, nomos - law; hence the French anomie - absence of law) - a concept already found in the works of ancient thinkers (Euripides, Plato), was introduced into scientific circulation at the end of the 19th century. the French moralist philosopher J. M. Guyot, who considered anomie as a positive phenomenon - the liberation of the individual from the power of dogmatic prescriptions; however, only in the works of E. Durkheim did it become a significant sociological category.

For the first time the concept of anomie was introduced by Durkheim in the book "On the Division of Social Labor", and more fully defined it four years later in his classic study "Suicide". The category of anomie is associated in the works of the French sociologist with the problem of social solidarity, fundamental for his work.

Durkheim identified two forms of social solidarity.

The first - mechanistic - determines the nature of integration in a traditional society - very stable and inactive, where the cultural order was provided simply, the needs of people were undeveloped and the rate of change in social institutions was low.

The second form of social solidarity - organic - characterizes the social structure of a modern industrial society, where the range of individual needs and freedoms is expanded, and the range of collective control is significantly narrowed in comparison with traditional society.

As a result of the disappearance (or extreme weakening) of stable norms of behavior, firm life principles also disappear, the authority of elders and the sanctity of traditions are undermined. This disorientates people, deprives them of social support and leaves them face to face with their problems at crucial moments of choice among a multitude of dissimilar values, goals and means of achieving them. The lack of clear guidelines makes this choice extremely difficult.

Anomy occurs in modern society under two conditions:

• - serious economic crises, when the government is unable to regulate the behavior of the market using the developed rules of the game and legislation;
• - serious social conflicts and / or contradictions, in particular between labor and capital.

Thus, the essence of anomie, according to Durkheim, is the lack of integration in society. Durkheim finds the source of such disintegration in the socio-economic factors of the development of society, it becomes an increasing specialization of labor, as a result of which the effectiveness of contacts between participants in social interaction decreases and the mechanisms of regulation of social relations are destroyed. Anomy is a consequence of the incomplete transition of society from one state to another, namely, from mechanical to organic solidarity, when old institutions and norms have already been destroyed, and new ones have not yet been created.

It manifests itself in the form of the following violations:

• - partial or complete absence of normative regulation in crisis, transitional social situations, when the old system of norms and values \u200b\u200bhas been destroyed, and the new one has not yet been established;
• - low degree of influence of social norms on individuals, their ineffectiveness as a means of social regulation of behavior;
• - the vagueness, instability and inconsistency of value-normative prescriptions and orientations, in particular - the contradiction between the norms that determine the goals of activities and the norms that regulate the means of achieving these goals.

In connection with the general understanding of society as a means of integrating individuals, Durkheim proposes a classification of suicides, the criterion of which is the nature of the relationship between individuals and society. According to this criterion, scientists have identified two pairs of polar types of suicide.

The connection between individuals and society is considered by him in two aspects. The first analyzes the degree of cohesion of individuals in society: its weakening leads to selfish suicide, when people do not see the meaning in life, and excessive cohesion causes altruistic suicide, which occurs because the individual sees the meaning of life outside of life itself. The second examines the degree of regulation, regulation of ties and relations in society. Excessive regulation leads to fatalistic suicide, and its lack or absence leads to anomical. Durkheim associates anemic suicide with the disorder, unsettledness of human activity.

The reasons pushing a person to this or that deviation are rooted in the conditions of the social environment. When an individual is not sufficiently integrated into society, is not accepted by the environment, he closes in on himself. If at the same time he does not receive social support, a vicious circle is formed: in society a person is not understood and not accepted, he cannot understand himself.

Durkheim, after analyzing statistics on suicide in several European countries, identified several social risk factors:

• - Protestants are more prone to suicide than Catholics;
• - single people more often than married people voluntarily give up their lives;
• - the number of suicides as a percentage is higher in countries with unstable economies and political systems;
• - repressive political systems create a suicidal atmosphere in the country.

Factor One: Protestantism. If the Catholic Church more strictly regulates the development of the value-semantic sphere of the individual, and various kinds of behavioral manifestations (this stability and rigidity of social regulation leads to the fact that Catholics less often commit suicide), then Protestantism, having reformed Christian morality, shattered the foundations, as a result - deprived the person of a sense of stability.

Second factor: family. The family acts as a lifeline, supporting a person psychologically in a difficult situation. On the contrary, the breakdown of the family (which is also in many ways anomie) can push a person to commit suicide.

Factor three: social instability. If a society is in crisis, its social institutions, designed to serve as the basis of stability, do not fulfill their intended functions, the human value system plunges into chaos.

The fourth factor: political authoritarianism. Durkheim believed that repressive political systems increase the rate of suicide. However, historical facts do not always confirm the correctness of his views. Tight control over the behavior and thoughts of people in some cases leads to an increase in suicide, in others it does not.

Durkheim considered anomie to be the natural state of "industrial", that is, capitalist society. Since this society encourages the goals and values \u200b\u200bof individual success that are the same for all, the majority of people, deprived of wealth, power, high prestige, inevitably find themselves in conflict with social norms or regard their life as a failure.

The limited possibilities for satisfying human desires (which, by the way, are limitless by their very nature) and at the same time the lack of effective norms regulating and curbing these desires, make many people unhappy and push them to manifestations of deviant behavior, including destructive and even self-destructive, up to suicide (including through alcoholism and drug addiction, which are actually slow forms of suicide).

Interest in the concept of anomie flared up in the United States in the late 1930s, when the economic crisis especially sharply showed American sociologists the need to study and develop the problems of social disorganization. The largest representative of sociological functionalism, RK Merton, focused on dysfunctional phenomena in society.

Merton interprets anomie in the context of a social structure, which he divides into two elements. The first is the sphere of aspirations and includes the goals, intentions and interests determined by a given culture. The second element of the social structure defines, regulates and controls the acceptable ways of achieving these goals. The relationship between culturally defined goals and institutional norms, according to Merton, is unstable and even fraught with conflict.

Durkheim's idea that a situation of non-normality can arise from a clash of aspirations and the destruction of regulatory norms was reformulated in the works of Merton into a general principle: "... some structures of society exert a certain pressure on individual members of society, pushing them rather on the path of insubordination than on the path of behavior consistent with generally accepted rules. " Suicide for Merton was just one of the possible behavioral reactions to anomie, including crime, delinquency, mental disorder, alcoholism, drug addiction and much more.

Based on two basic social variables, the mismatch between which leads to anomie, Merton constructs a possible typology of social behavior, which is a variety of alternative ways of adapting the individual to the conditions existing in a society or a group: submission, renewal, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion. None of these adaptations is consciously chosen by the individual; they are to a certain extent spontaneous.

Subordination, or conformism, - the most common behavior due to which the very existence of society is possible. Ritualism is found in those groups where the activity, originally conceived as a means to an end, becomes an end in itself. In such groups, the original goals are forgotten and the ritualistic adherence to the institutionally prescribed behavior takes on the character of genuine obsession. As an example, Merton cites the service psychosis of a bureaucrat. But the behavior of the ritualist, as he himself believes, is not considered in society as deviant.

Mutiny or revolutionism, occupies a special place in the typology of deviation. Although Merton in the first essay considers revolutionism as a kind of deviation, at the same time, he clearly records its fundamental differences. This alternative represents a transitional response that seeks to institutionalize new ways, oriented towards the achievement of renewed cultural goals. Therefore, it is not about adapting to the existing social structure, but about changing it.

Actually a deviant type of behavior turns out to be innovation. It arises, according to Merton, due to the fact that the social structure that regulates the institutional means of achieving cultural goals does not allow all members of society to achieve them. As a result, individuals who, due to their low social status, are not able to effectively satisfy aspirations emphasized by culture, turn to anti-moral means. Hence - the crime of the lower socio-economic classes, and white-collar crime, and anti-ethical practice in business. However, the strongest pressures towards deviation take place in the lower social strata.

If conformism prevails, then adaptation of the type retretism is less common. Rejection of both cultural goals and institutional means should rather be considered maladjustment.

To this category, Merton classifies some types of psychopaths, psychoneurotics, persons suffering from chronic mental disorders, expressed in withdrawal from the real world into the inner world of painful experiences, pariahs, renegades, loiters, vagabonds, chronic alcoholics and drug addicts. Retretism arises among those who have internalized cultural goals, but for some reason do not have access to the established means of achieving them, and the choice of illegal means for them is impossible due to their effective socialization. Defeat and self-elimination manifest themselves in the mental mechanisms of escape from reality, which inevitably leads to escape from the demands of society.

Merton's concept includes the entire continuum of social behavior, the classification of which is determined by the ratio of ends and means, accepted or rejected by individuals. With this approach, anomie turns out to be a nonspecific factor in the development of deviant behavior; it determines all five forms of behavior.

Therefore, it would be more correct to consider anomie as a necessary, but not the only prerequisite for deviant behavior, continuing the search for additional specific factors.

The concepts of anomie proposed by E. Durkheim and R. Merton, explaining in different ways the socionormative aspects of the regulation of behavior, in particular, the problems of the development of deviant behavior, largely complement each other. E. Durkheim's concept (anomie as "lack of normality") focuses on the transitional periods of social development, while R. Merton's approach (anomie as a mismatch of ends and means) is more applicable to stages of relatively stable social functioning.

Based on the fundamental ideas of Durkheim and Merton, the American sociologist and psychologist Leo Srowl built a sociopsychological version of the theory of anomie.

For L. Srowl, anomie was operationalized using the following concepts:

• - social non-integration (social malintegration), which describes the individual perception of social and psychological distance in relation to other codes (self-to-ot hers distance);
• - alienation in relation to other people (self-toothers alienation).

Recognizing that anomie in Durkheim and Merton primarily characterizes the state of society, L. Srowl emphasized that it can also represent the individual state of a person when he falls into the conditions described by Durkheim as anomical. One of these conditions, in particular, is the environment of the metropolis.

Srowl developed a special test that measured the levels of an individual's anomalous condition. The scale includes five items, represented by judgments, with which the respondent must express his / her agreement / disagreement:

• - a personal feeling that the leaders of the local community are fenced off from your interests, problems and needs (I feel that influential figures in society are indifferent to my requests and needs);
• - individual perception of the social order as unpredictable, confusing a person, i.e. lack of order as such (In a society where there is no order and it is not known what will happen tomorrow, little can be achieved) ",
• - an individual point of view that he himself and people like him are moving back in relation to the positions already conquered and the boundaries once achieved (The chance to achieve the most important life goals for me is less and less;
• - an unshakable sense of the meaninglessness of life in general ( Whatever I do, it turns out that life passes by);
• - a personal feeling that the system of family and friendship relations, on which a person has relied so far, is no longer as strong (I am more and more convinced that I cannot count on friendly support from my immediate environment).

Empirical studies using this scale, conducted by L. Srowl himself and under his leadership, have shown:

• - the presence of an inverse relationship between the variables "individual level of anomie" and "socioeconomic status of respondents (occupation and education of the head of the family)";
• - the presence of a relationship between the level of anomie, mental disorders and socioeconomic status. Most of the nervous and mental disorders were found among the representatives of the lower classes, where, as already mentioned, a higher level of anomie was noted.

L. Srowl, who studies the psychology of people who have become victims of social anomie, described a typical social portrait for them with characteristic feelings of loss of the meaning of life, uselessness, abandonment, and doom. Not so long ago, our compatriot R. Frumkina interviewed a large group of Russians of different ages, presenting them with a list of judgments formulated by Sroul. None of the respondents even suspected that all this was said half a century ago at the other end of the world! The majority, on the contrary, readily agreed with almost all the statements (some disagreement was expressed by young people on points 3 and 4 - young people, as they should, still hope for the best).

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe relationship between conformity and deviance, proposed by representatives of the functionalist trend, was taken up by interactionist theories. In them, deviance is interpreted as a phenomenon generated by society. Accordingly, the key question becomes the following: "Why are some types of behavior and some people defined by society as deviant?"

A number of sociologists emphasize the similarity between the way of developing deviant behavior and the way of developing any other style of behavior. So, at the end of the XIX century. Gabriel Tarde argued that criminals, like "decent" people, imitate the behavior of those individuals with whom they met in life, whom they knew or heard about. But unlike law-abiding citizens, they imitate the behavior of criminals. In other words, young people become offenders because they associate and make friends with those actors in whom criminal behavior patterns are already ingrained.

American sociologist and forensic scientist Edwin H. Sutherland linked crime to what he called differentiated association.

The essence of his idea is this: in a society that includes many subcultures, some social communities encourage illegal actions, while others do not. The individual becomes a delinquent or criminal, uniting himself with the bearers of criminal norms. According to Sutherland, criminal behavior is learned predominantly in basic groups, in particular in peer groups.

When parents move to a new location to take their son away from their hooligan cronies, they unconsciously use the principle of differential association. The same principle is followed by the guards in the prison, trying to limit the communication of prisoners. According to the same principle, imprisonment can lead to clearly negative consequences if young offenders are placed in the same cell with hardened criminals.

An original, albeit controversial, sociological approach to crime is stigma theory (i.e. labeling, branding). Proponents of the theory of stigma (for example, Edwin Lemert) interpret deviation not as a certain set of characteristics of an individual or group, but as a process of interaction between people with disabilities and people without disabilities1. Once an individual is labeled a criminal, he is already branded. Most likely, others will further view him and treat him as "not inspiring confidence." An individual who is viewed as a “rejected” person again commits criminal acts, thereby increasing the gap with established social norms. The process of "learning to be a criminal" is compounded by the same organizations whose task is to correct deviant behavior - colonies, prisons and shelters.

The theory of stigma is original in that it proceeds from the assumption that no action is inherently criminal. Definitions of criminality are set by people in positions of power (rich for the poor, men for women, elders for younger, ethnic majority for minorities) through the formulation of laws and their interpretation by the police, courts and correctional institutions.

Stigma theory can be criticized in three ways.

First, critics of the "label theory" point out that there are actions that are clearly prohibited by all cultures, such as murder without self-defense, forcible appropriation of other people's property (robbery).

Second, this theory places an emphasis on labeling while the causes of primary deviation are out of sight. It is clear that labels do not arise by accident. Differences in socialization, attitudes, and capacities affect the degree to which they are sensitive to the label of the deviant and how they behave thereafter.

Third, it is still unclear whether labeling actually has the effect of enhancing deviant behavior. This is difficult to judge because there are many other factors involved (for example, increased communication with offenders or new opportunities to commit crimes).

An economic approach. At the end of the XX century. Attempts were often made to apply the economic concept of rational choice in the analysis of criminal acts. The essence of the approach is that people themselves choose criminal actions, and are not forced to do so by external influences. They simply believe that there are situations in which to take risks. Both economists and many criminologists are inclined to such an interpretation of crime as "special business". Research shows that a significant proportion of criminal activities (in particular, almost all petty crimes such as non-violent theft) are "situational" decisions. An opportunity arises that is too good to pass up; for example, a person sees that the house is empty, tries to open the door, and finds that he succeeds. There are not so many “professional” criminals. Most of the criminals are "amateurs" who supplement income from other sources by participating in theft and robbery, if given the opportunity. Since people committing a crime are most often ordinary people, it is quite logical to explain their criminal actions in the same way as other, law-abiding actions explain: the decision to take something in the store when no one sees is not too different from the decision to buy one that has caught the eye product.

Test work Social studies grade 10

Topic: Society and People

Option 1

Part A.

1. Are the following judgments about a person true?

A. Man is a natural, biological fact.

B. Man is a product of social and cultural evolution.

1. Only A. is true 2. Only B. is true 3. Both statements are true 4. Both statements are false

2. The needs of a person generated by society include the need:

1. In work 2. In normal heat exchange

3. In maintaining health 4. In physical activity

3. A conscious image of the expected result, towards which the activity is aimed, is called:

1. Purpose of activity 2. Result of activity 3. Motive of activity 4. Need

4. Kind of activity, typical not only for people:

1. Material and production 2. Cognitive 3. Creative 4. Play

Playful activity is necessary for a person, since

1. Forms logical thinking 2. Distracts from everyday activities

3. Forms professional skills 4. Improves relationships with others

Labor and communication as types of human activity

1. Require the obligatory presence of a partner / partners 2. Depend on the verbal activity of the person 3. Are the needs of the person 4. Are aimed at the planned result

Unlike nature, society

1. Develops naturally 2. Has the ability to develop due to human consciousness

3. Subject to changes 4. Does not develop at all

Empiric philosophers as well as rationalists

1. We considered it possible to know the world 2. We saw the basis of knowledge in sensory experience

3. Believed in the existence of innate moral qualities 4. Considered logic as the basis of true knowledge

9. Are the following judgments true:

A. The concept of "society" covers all forms and ways of interaction between people.

B. The concept of "society" can be used to refer to the stage of human development.

1) Only A is true 3) Both statements are true

2) Only B is true 4) Both judgments are wrong

10. The philosophical trend, recognizing reason as the basis of knowledge and behavior of people, the source and criterion of the truth of all human aspirations in life, is called:

1. Sensualism 2. Empiricism 3. Rationalism 4. Agnosticism

Part B.

Set correspondence

A. A person actively assimilating and purposefully 1. Individual

transforming nature, society and oneself

B. Individual representative only 2. Individuality

human race

B. Unique originality of a person, his set 3. Personality

unique properties

AND	B	IN

2. Set the match.

Examples Types of knowledge

A. If something unpleasant can happen, 1. Life knowledge

then it will definitely happen

B. Finds of birch bark letters convincingly

indicate a high level of literacy 2. Scientific knowledge

in ancient Russia

C. The ancients say that they lived in the Black Sea region 3. Mythological knowledge

tribes of warlike amazons killing men

D. Each person strives to achieve

their level of incompetence

D. A number of diseases have genetic

hereditary basis

AND	B	IN	D	D

3. Choose from the given methods of scientific knowledge that belong to the group of theoretical ones.

1. Setting up an experiment 2. Building a mathematical model

3. Carrying out observations of the object 4. Putting a hypothesis

5. Building a system of evidence 6. Analyzing the data obtained

4. Enter the missing word

Scientific knowledge

5. Read the text below where a number of words are missing.

"The simplest, most accessible type of activity is _________ (1). It is conditional _______ (2) and realizes the child's need for activity and cognition of the surrounding world based on the assimilation of human forms of behavior. A more complex type of activity is ______ (3), aimed at assimilation scientific knowledge and the acquisition of relevant skills and abilities.The most important type of human activity is _____ (4). It ensures not only the existence of a human _______ (5), but is also a condition for its continuous _____ (6). Among its types are subject-practical and abstract-theoretical, or the former is often called physical, and the latter mental. "

Social studies test The social essence of a person for students in grade 7 consists of 2 parts (Part A and Part B). In part A - 15 tasks, in part B - 4 tasks.

A1. A person is distinguished from an animal by the ability

1) take care of the offspring
2) get food
3) work hard
4) use natural materials

A2. Only in human society can a need form

1) in self-preservation
2) in creativity
3) in interaction with their own kind
4) in physical development

A3. Man is a social being, therefore

1) a person lacks natural instincts
2) only social needs affect human behavior
3) a person is able to foresee the consequences of their actions
4) only the laws of nature determine human behavior

A4. Man is a biological being, therefore

1) he creates conditions and means for his existence
2) the ability to communicate is inherited
3) only biological needs affect human behavior
4) it has an inherent need for normal heat exchange

A5. Unlike animal behavior, human activity is characterized by

1) adaptive behavior
2) satisfaction of needs
3) purposefulness
4) instinct

A6. The purpose of work is

1) cognition, transformation of the laws of the development of the world
2) transformation of objects of the surrounding reality
3) acquisition of knowledge
4) creation of works of art

A7. Play, unlike labor, involves

1) having a partner
2) the conditional nature of actions
3) the individual nature of actions
4) activity

A8. Are the following judgments about activity correct?

A. In the process of activity, a person creates something that is not in nature.
B. Study is one of the main types of human activity.

1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are true
4) both judgments

A9. What is the name of human activities related to the transformation of nature?

1) practical
2) spiritual
3) consumer
4) social

A10. Educational activity, in contrast to labor,

1) involves communication
2) is collective
3) is educational in nature
4) is creative

A11. For social development, a person needs to

1) had a rest
2) eat right
3) was physically developed
4) communicated with other people

A12. Are the following judgments about socialization correct?

A. Parenting is part of the socialization process
B. The process of socialization occurs throughout a person's life

1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are true
4) both judgments

A13. A person as a person is characterized (are)

1) features of temperament
2) social activity
3) external data
4) physical and mental health

A14. The spiritual life of a person is (are)

1) drawing up a family budget
2) construction of a country house
3) participation in a poetry competition
4) opening a small business

A15. Are the following judgments about human freedom true?

A. Human freedom is permissiveness, the ability to act
according only to their desires.
B. Freedom of a person in society implies the ability to make an informed choice and take responsibility for it

1) only A is true
2) only B is true
3) both statements are true
4) both judgments

B1. A number of terms are listed below. All of them, with the exception of one, relate to the concept human activity.
Society, motive, result, means, end, game.
Find and specify a term that refers to another concept.

B2. In the above list, features of similarity are indicated, as well as features of differences between humans and animals. Select and write down the ordinal numbers of the similarities in the first column of the table, and the ordinal numbers of the differences in the second column.

1) communication with their own kind
2) the ability to think
3) the need for self-preservation
4) the presence of self-awareness

B3. Establish a correspondence between the type of activity and the features of its manifestation:

Features of manifestation

A. Acquisition of new knowledge.
B. Conditional nature of actions.
B. The presence of imagination and fantasy.
D. Transformation of the natural world and the creation of wealth.

Activities

1) labor
2) play
3) training

B4. Find the person's social needs in the list below and circle the numbers under which they are indicated. Write the circled numbers in ascending order.

1) the need for communication
2) the need for self-knowledge
3) the need for security
4) the need for sleep
5) the need for recognition

Answers to the social studies test Social essence of a person
A1. 3
A2. 2
A3. 3
A4. 4
A5. 3
A6. 2
A7. 2
A8. 3
A9. 1
A10. 3
A11. 4
A12. 3
A13. 2
A14. 3
A15. 2
IN 1. society
AT 2. 13 24
AT 3. A3, B2, B2, G1
AT 4. 15