“THE PROCESS OF BORROWING AS A VARIETY OF LANGUAGE CONTACT Abstract. Relevance and goals. The relevance of the study is due to the consideration of borrowing as a pr ... "

Proceedings of higher educational institutions. Volga region

S. V. Kudryashova

BORROWING PROCESS

AS A VARIETY OF LANGUAGE CONTACT

Annotation.

Relevance and goals. The relevance of the study is due to the consideration of borrowing as a process that does not necessarily manifest itself in the conditions of bilingualism, for it, first of all, it requires a linguistic

contact. Borrowing is understood as a process in which elements of another language that are alien to the native language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at the phonological, morphological, lexical-semantic and stylistic levels, i.e. are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of "borrowing", to analyze theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria for their adaptation in the recipient language.

Materials and methods. The material is linguistic scientific articles, abstracts and monographs. In the course of the research, a descriptive method was used, involving the interpretation and classification of the material, as well as the inductive-deductive method, which makes it possible to comprehend and generalize the corresponding theoretical material.

Results. The study made it possible to identify three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), and rooting in the language.

At the same time, it is often difficult to determine at what stage of the adaptation process is this or that borrowing. The process of adaptation of borrowings at different language levels is uneven: a relatively small number of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is ambiguous.

This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed units, their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the system of the recipient language. Features of these processes can be due to both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process characteristic of both bilingualism and monolingualism, when elements of another language that are alien to the native language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are derived. In most cases, borrowed units are adapted to one degree or another at all language levels, i.e. are modified in accordance with the norms of the recipient language.

Key words: language contact, borrowing, Spanish, Anglo-Americanism, adaptation.

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Background. The relevance of the study is determined by consideration of borrowing as a process that is not necessarily manifested in bilingualism - first of all, it University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology requires language contact. Borrowing is thought of as a process by which elements of another language, foreign to the native language, are not regulated by the knowledge of the language from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units adapt to varying degrees on the phonological, morphological, lexical-semantic and stylistic levels, in other words, modified in accordance with the rules of the recipient language. The aim of the study was to identify different views of domestic and foreign linguists on the concept of “borrowing”, analysis of theoretical approaches to the study of types of borrowings and linguistic criteria to adapt them to the recipient language.

Materials and methods. The data for the study included scientific articles, author's abstracts of dissertations and monographs. The study used a descriptive method, involving interpretation and classification of the material, as well as an inductive-deductive method to comprehend and summarize the relevant theoretical material.

Results. The study revealed three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration, partially acquisition (borrowing), rooting in the language. In this case, it is often difficult to determine at what stage is a particular borrowing in the process of adaptation. The adaptation process of borrowing at different levels of language is not uniform: a relatively small amount of borrowings is characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

Conclusions. The concept of borrowing in linguistics is multivalued. This phenomenon is studied in terms of adaptation of borrowed items and their changes under the influence of interference, as well as functioning in the recipient language.

Features of these processes can be caused by both internal and external factors. Borrowing is a process, characteristic for the situation of bilingualism and monolingualism as alien elements of another language are not regulated by the knowledge of the language, from which they are drawn. In most cases, borrowed units adapt to varying degrees in all language levels, modified in accordance with the rules of the recipient language.

Key words: language contact, borrowing, Spanish, anglo-americanism, adoptation.

The study of issues of linguistic contacts and related phenomena, in particular the process of borrowing, has a long tradition in domestic and foreign linguistics. This issue is currently especially relevant and attracts the attention of many researchers, since the end of the XX and the beginning of the XXI century. characterized by a significant expansion of international relations and the strengthening of linguistic contacts, which are carried out both directly between speakers of different languages, and with the help of the media.

In a situation of intensive interaction of languages, changes occur in the system of one or both languages, or the appearance of common linguistic features, i.e. interference, or partial or complete displacement of one of the contacting languages. The most significant consequence of linguistic contact is the appearance in the interacting languages ​​of various types of borrowing.

The study of the phenomenon of "borrowing" is a study of a complex of linguistic and extralinguistic problems, which include issues related to the interpretation of this term, types of borrowing, the reasons and conditions of borrowing, changes occurring with borrowing Humanities. Philology 67 Proceedings of higher educational institutions. The Volga region in terms of the language of the recipient, etc. The term "borrowing" in linguistics is ambiguous. So, many scientists distinguish between the concepts of "borrowing" and "borrowed word", proposing to define the term "borrowing" as "the mutual influence of languages", other authors identify these concepts, arguing that words are most often borrowed.

Some linguists mean by borrowing a process, others - the result of a process. Many foreign linguists describe borrowing as "a process that results in the transition of a linguistic unit from one language to another." In turn, others believe that borrowing is “elements transferred into another language, i.e. the consequences of the interaction of languages ​​that can exist in this language after the interaction has ceased. "

The closest to the objectives of our research is the definition of borrowing, which belongs to I. G. Dobrodomov: “Borrowing is an element of a foreign language (word, morpheme, syntactic structure, etc.), transferred from one language to another as a result of linguistic contacts, as well as the process of transition of elements from one language to another "

By borrowing, we mean foreign language elements, especially words, since borrowing occurs most often at the lexical level. In addition, borrowing is the transfer of lexical units from one language to another with the subsequent adaptation of borrowed tokens in the system of the recipient language. The process of lexical borrowing is undoubtedly broader than grammatical, derivational or phonetic borrowing.

As a result of long historical interaction and mixing of languages, borrowings occupy a significant place in the vocabulary of many languages. Borrowing channels can be both oral and book, written.

In oral borrowing, the word undergoes more changes in its appearance than in writing. If a word enters the language of another people while simultaneously borrowing a new object or concept, then the meaning of this borrowing does not undergo changes, but if a new word appears as a synonym for already existing words, a delimitation of meanings occurs between them and shifts in the original semantics are observed. A morphologically complex borrowed word is usually simplified upon transition to the recipient language and is perceived in this language as simple and non-derivative.

Thus, borrowing in a broad sense is the process of moving various elements from one language to another and their adaptation in the borrowing language, and in the narrow sense - linguistic elements moved from one language to another and functioning in it. We can talk about borrowing a word (the most frequent and typical case of borrowing), about borrowing a phoneme (the most rare and special case, depending on the degree of contact between two languages), about borrowing a morpheme (usually as part of a word), about syntactic borrowing (constructing phrases in a language under the influence of foreign language syntactic constructions) and, finally, on the borrowing of the semantic (the appearance in the word of the meaning "under pressure" of the foreign language sample - semantic tracing).

University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology The most active process of borrowing occurs at the level of vocabulary, this is due to the need to nominate new realities, concepts and phenomena in the recipient language.

It is believed that the process of borrowing, unlike other phenomena accompanying linguistic contacts, in particular mixing and switching codes, does not imply a deep knowledge of the language from which the elements are borrowed, and direct contact of the carriers of the two cultures, since only lexical material directly contacts and functions. The ability to borrow is influenced by a large number of factors, such as the genetic proximity of languages, socio-political conditions, the way languages ​​spread, their similarity, the nature of contact, the attitude of linguistic communities to these languages, etc.

Both in domestic and foreign linguistics, there are a number of classifications of borrowings based on various criteria.

For example, oral and book borrowings (O.S. Akhmanova, 1969; D.E. Rosenthal, 1976), direct and indirect (G. Paul, 1960; B.N. Golovin, 1973), lexical and morphematic (I. G. Dobrodomov, 1990), linguistic and cultural-historical (R. A. Budagov, 1965; L. Bloomfield, 1968), material borrowings and tracing papers (T. G. Linnik, 1989).

Following E. Haugen, we distinguish the following types of borrowings:

- borrowing itself, while borrowing both the material form and the semantics of the source language, however, phonomorphological and semantic changes are possible under the influence of the recipient language;

- semantic tracing-paper, i.e. borrowing semantics without material form or with partial morphemic substitution;

- hybrid formations, i.e. words, partially consisting of foreign language elements.

The importance of the problem of borrowing is determined both by linguistic parameters, which are aimed at revealing the mechanisms of adaptation, and by social ones, which make it possible to reveal the depth of cultural-historical contacts. The linguistic mechanism of the entry of borrowed units from different source languages ​​into the recipient language is, in principle, the same, and borrowings can be investigated from the point of view of the mechanism of interference that led to them and from the point of view of phonological, grammatical and semantic adaptation in the borrowing language.

AI Smirnitsky notes that when borrowing, “a word breaks with the system of the language in which it existed earlier, is included in the system of another language and is formed according to the rules and means of this language. Understanding borrowing as the transfer of words from one language to another presupposes their adaptation in the structure of the recipient language and gradual adaptation to its linguistic norms. Hence, according to L. A. Ilyina, the priority of formal development of borrowings as a criterion for their inclusion in the perceiving language, their division according to this criterion into "assimilated" and "unassimilated", the allocation of conventional, but unassimilated foreign words in the language.

In modern contact linguistics, three main approaches (or theories) to the problem of lexical borrowing dominate, for which, Humanities. Philology 69 Proceedings of higher educational institutions. The Volga region in particular, points out J. Aydukovich. These include: 1) the theory of the transfer of borrowings, according to which borrowing is considered as "the transition, transfer, penetration of elements of one language into another language";

2) the theory of structural modeling of borrowings by analogy with foreign language samples, according to which borrowing is explained as “the creation of one's own elements by one's own language means through creative imitation, approximate copying of foreign language samples; 3) a compromise theory, according to which "when copying the plan of expression"

"transfer, transfer of foreign language meanings" is allowed.

Thus, the widespread traditional understanding of borrowing as a transition, transfer, penetration of elements of one language into another is opposed by its explanation as the creation of one's own elements by one's own language means through creative imitation, approximate copying or structural modeling by analogy with foreign language samples.

On the basis of the theory of "transfer", the theory of activation or adaptation of elements of the source language in the recipient language is also postulated, according to which, in the speech of monolinguals, the word transferred from one language to another is subject to adaptation at all language levels and the results of language influence can be represented by a scale - from full integration until the complete mismatch of language elements.

Most scientists (L.P. Krysin, E. Haugen, B.N. Zabavnikov, V.M. Aristova) distinguish three main stages of adaptation of borrowings in the recipient language: penetration into speech, partial assimilation (borrowing), rooting in the language.

1. Penetration meets the following criteria:

- direct connection with the source language, manifested in the external design of the word, for example, the appearance of foreign language inclusions in the texts, the emergence of formal doublets, fluctuations at the grammatical and word-formation levels;

- semantic unambiguity as a consequence of the fact that in most cases a lexical unit at the stage of penetration denotes someone else's reality or conveys someone else's concept;

- use in certain contexts;

- lack of derivative formations.

2. Borrowing is characterized by:

the internal connection of the word with the source language;

stabilization of the word form at the grammatical and derivational levels;

the beginning of the regular use of the word;

the beginning of word-formation activity.

3. Rooting is characterized by:

the separation of words from the source language;

complete semantic independence of the word and the formation of the lexical-semantic microsystem of the given word (phraseological units, figurative uses, etc.);

interaction with elements of the borrowing language, leading to the differentiation of meanings in the original words;

University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology by the wide use of the word;

wide word-formation activity, often leading to the formation of new lexemes.

It can be difficult to determine at what stage of adaptation a particular borrowing is. The process of adaptation of borrowings at different language levels is uneven; a relatively small number of borrowings are characterized by the same degree of development at all levels of the language system.

As a result, linguists are developing more specific classifications of the degrees of adaptation of borrowings. Following the traditionally distinguished criteria for adaptation of borrowings, developed by Sh. Seshan, S. A. Belyaeva, V. M. Aristova, G. V. Pavlenko, the following order of the degree of adaptation is proposed: phonetic and graphic adaptation, grammatical, lexical-semantic adaptation, semantic independence words, its word-formation activity, the emergence of new meanings in the recipient language, widespread use in speech, the expansion of the semantic range of the word.

At the first stage, foreign language inclusions or exoticisms are distinguished, which are occasional lexical units that penetrate the language, preserve the letter (orthographic) combinations of the source language.

In texts for graphical implementation, they are displayed in quotes or in italics. There are only small changes in the sound envelope of the borrowing. They are at the initial stage of adaptation, however, in the process of frequent use in speech, they can adapt in the recipient language and go to the stage of rooting in the language.

At the second stage of mastering, borrowings become more and more adapted to the system of the recipient language, which is associated with the desire to make them more understandable. Partially mastered borrowings undergo phonetic-graphic, morphological and semantic adaptation. In order to transmit a foreign language word through the sounds of the borrowing language, it is simplified by reducing sounds, omitting unstressed vowels and eliminating the dependence of the meaning of the word on the length of the vowel sound.

With grammatical adaptation, borrowings are correlated with certain lexico-grammatical categories of words. The borrowed word gradually loses the grammatical categories of the source language and is included in the morphological system of the borrowing language, acquiring the corresponding grammatical categories of the recipient language.

At the stage of rooting, the borrowed word begins to possess signs of semantic independence and enters into a system of semantic relations with other words of the recipient language. Not many words retain their previous semantic characteristics; most often they are influenced by the borrowing language, which leads to the development of new meanings in them.

At the stage of rooting, foreign language vocabulary in the borrowing language exhibits active word-formation activity, forms single-root words, acquires new shades of meanings, etc.

BN Zabavnikov notes that borrowings begin to show “a deviation in semantic development on a new basis. This can be a change in the volume of the meaning of the borrowed word in comparison with its prototype, most often a narrowing. "

Humanities. Philology 71 Proceedings of higher educational institutions. Volga region It should be noted that the semantic adaptation of the word first of all indicates that the word has really been assimilated in the recipient language. In this case, the borrowed word is included in the system of semantic relations in the vocabulary of the recipient language, undergoes new grammatical transformations, undergoes semantic changes along with the original words and can receive a completely different meaning.

Borrowing can take place at all levels of the linguistic structure. In some situations, in particular with mediated linguistic contact, only lexical borrowing occurs, while the consequences for the receiving language may be insignificant; in others, in particular with direct linguistic contact, there may be different types code switching. With intensive contact between two or more linguistic communities, both lexical and structural borrowing can occur, which can lead to changes and restructuring of the language or languages-recipients; linguistic contact can also facilitate language change. In some cases, the recipient language may undergo only minor changes in different language tiers, in others - significant restructuring, as a result of which its variants or varieties can be formed, an example of which is the territorial variants of the Spanish language and the Spanish-Creole languages ​​common on the American continent.

As for the mechanism of interaction between contacting languages, it depends both on the nature of interethnic contacts and on the intrastructural properties of these languages ​​and, above all, on their structural similarity (difference) and mutual understanding (incomprehensibility).

The generally accepted classification of borrowed lexical units is based on the classification according to the degree of mastering the word. Along with etymological classifications (according to the source of borrowing), “this kind of classifications involves not only solving the question of the source of borrowing a word (or a group of words), but also raising the question of typological similarity and the limit of permeability of two systems (giving and receiving), on which the or another form and degree of formal and semantic adaptation ”.

L.P. Krysin identifies the conditions necessary for the adaptation of a borrowed word in the system of the borrowing language, which at the structural level include its transmission by phonetic and graphic means of the borrowing language, correlation with grammatical classes and categories, phonetic and grammatical development, word-formation activity. At the level of semantic adaptation, a certainty of meaning is formed, a differentiation of meanings and their shades occurs between the borrowed word and the original vocabulary existing in the language. Finally, one of the main signs of the adaptability of a word is its regular use in speech.

The classifications also reflect the aspect of the borrowing process concerning the determination of the extreme points of this process, namely the time of penetration and the time of mastering the borrowed unit in the system of the borrowing language. Foreign language material that does not fit into the parameters of the language system is subject to mandatory processing in it. So, according to the University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology to the second extreme point (state), as shown above, put forward a whole set of signs-indicators of complete assimilation of the word.

The degree of mastery of a foreign language word is evidenced by the presence of differential signs: the more there are, the higher the mastery of borrowing in the recipient language. All borrowings are subdivided on the basis of conformity / inconsistency with the prevailing linguistic norms, as a result of which the following types of adaptation of borrowed vocabulary are distinguished: graphic, phonetic, morphological, syntactic and semantic.

Since the structural difference between languages ​​in contact is an objective reason for interlingual interference, then for its study, as a rule, their systems are compared in a synchronous and / or diachronous plan. It is believed that the structural factors influencing the interference are total in nature and cover all levels of the language system (phonological, grammatical and lexical). In order to provide a more complete and reliable description of changes in languages ​​in contact, the above levels are explored in the paradigmatic, syntagmatic and transformational plan with the study of complete and partial discrepancies in linguistic structures.

The degree of adaptation of borrowing depends on the level of genetic relationship of the donor language and the recipient language, the typological similarity of the languages ​​in contact, the sphere, frequency and duration of its use, the intensity of the adaptive influence of the recipient language, as well as the correspondence / inconsistency of the phonetic, spelling and grammatical characteristics of words of foreign language origin. productive types of design of the original words of the borrowing language. A foreign language word is considered fully adapted if it was mastered not only at the formal level, but also acquired its independent lexical meaning, i.e. began to express subject-conceptual relations, and also developed the ability to combine with other words.

Bibliography

1. Phelizon, J. H. Vocabulaire de la linguistique / J. H. Phelizon. - Paris: Eds Roudel, 1976 .-- 280 p.

2. Zhluk te nko, Yu. A. Linguistic aspects of bilingualism / Yu. A. Zhluktenko. - Kiev: Vischa school. Publishing house at Kiev. un-those, 1974 .-- 174 p.

3. Good houses, I. G. Borrowing / I. G. Dobrodomov // Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary / under the general. ed. V.N. Yartseva. - M.: Sov. encyclopedia, 1990. - pp. 158–159.

4. Krysin, LP Euphemisms in modern Russian speech / LP Krysin // Russistics. - Berlin, 1994. - No. 1–2. - S. 28–49.

5. Haugen, E. The borrowing process / E. Haugen // New in linguistics. - M.:

Progress, 1972. - Issue. 6. - P. 344–382.

6.Smirnitsky, A.I. Lexicology in English/ A. I. Smirnitsky. - M.: Moscow State University, 1998 .-- 260 p.

7. Ilyin, L. A. Lexical borrowing: foreign language transition or intra-lingual creation / L. A. Ilyina, O. V. Sycheva // Humanities in Siberia.

Series "Philology". - Novosibirsk, 1998. - No. 4. - P. 91–96.

8. Ay du kov ich, YO Basic concepts of lexical contactology (based on Russianisms in Slavic languages) // Russian language: historical destinies and humanities. Philology 73 Proceedings of higher educational institutions. Volga region temporality: theses of the II Intern. congress of researchers of the Russian language. - M., 2004. - S. 445. - URL: http://www.ptt.rs/korisnici/j/o/joralbgd/OsnovniPojmovi.

htm (date accessed: 01.02.2015).

9. Aristova, VM On the history of English words in the Russian language: author. dis. ... Cand. philol. sciences / Aristova V.M .; SamSU. - Samarkand, 1968 .-- 38 p.

10. Pavlenko, GV The problem of mastering foreign language borrowings: linguistic and speech aspects (on the material of anglicisms of the late XX century): author. dis ....

Cand. philol. sciences / Pavlenko G.V .; Taganrog. state ped. in-t. - Taganrog, 1999 .-- 27 p.

11. Zabavnikov, BN Semantic development of French lexical borrowings in the modern German language / BN Zabavnikov // Philological sciences. - M.: Higher school, 1977. - Issue. 4. - S. 71–79.

12. Birzhakova, EE Essays on the historical lexicology of the Russian language in the 18th century. Language contacts and borrowings / E. E. Birzhakova, L. A. Voinova, L. L. Kutina. - L.: Nauka, 1972 .-- 431 p.

13. Krysin, L. P. Foreign words in the modern Russian language / L. P. Krysin. - M.: Nauka, 1968 .-- 208 p.

References

1. Phelizon J. H. Vocabulaire de la linguistique. Paris: Eds Roudel, 1976, 280 p.

2. Zhluktenko Yu. A. Lingvisticheskie aspekty dvuyazychiya. Kiev: Vishcha shk. Izd-vo pri Kiev. un-te, 1974, 174 p.

3. Dobrodomov I. G. Lingvisticheskiy entsiklopedicheskiy slovar ". Moscow: Sov. Entsiklopediya, 1990, pp. 158–159.

4. Krysin L. P. Rusistika. Berlin, 1994, no. 1-2, pp. 28–49.

5. Khaugen E. Novoe v lingvistike. Moscow: Progress, 1972, iss. 6, pp. 344-382.

6. Smirnitskiy A. I. Leksikologiya angliyskogo yazyka.

Moscow: Moskovskiy gosudarstvennyy universitet, 1998, 260 p.

7. Il "ina L. A., Sycheva O. V. Gumanitarnye nauki v Sibiri. Seriya" Filologiya ". Novosibirsk, 1998, no. 4, pp. 91–96.

8. Aydukovich Y. O. Russkiy yazyk: istoricheskie sud "by i sovremennost": tezisy II Mezhdunar. kongressa issledovateley russkogo yazyka.

Moscow, 2004, p. 445. Available at: http://www.ptt.rs/korisnici/j/o/joralbgd/Osnovni Pojmovi.htm (accessed 1 February 2015).

9. Aristova V. M. K istorii angliyskikh slov v russkom yazyke: avtoref. dis. kand. filol.

nauk. Samarkand, 1968, 38 p.

10. Pavlenko G. V. Problema osvoeniya inoyazychnykh zaimstvovaniy: yazykovoy i rechevoy aspekty (na materiale anglitsizmov kontsa XX v.): Avtoref. dis. kand. filol. nauk. Taganrog, 1999, 27 p.

11. Zabavnikov B. N. Filologicheskie nauki. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola, 1977, iss. 4, pp. 71-79.

12. Birzhakova E. E., Voynova L. A., Kutina L. L. Ocherki po istoricheskoy leksikologii russkogo yazyka XVIII v. Yazykovye kontakty i zaimstvovaniya. Leningrad: Nauka, 1972, 431 p.

13. Krysin L. P. Inoyazychnye slova v sovremennom russkom yazyke. Moscow: Nauka, 1968, 208 p.

University proceedings. Volga region № 4 (36), 2015 Humanities. Philology Kudryashova Sofia Vladimirovna Kudriashova Sofia Vladimirovna Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Professor, Candidate of Philological Sciences, Associate Department of German and French Professor, Sub-Department of German Languages, Saratov State and French languages, Saratov State Law Academy Law Academy (1 Volskaya street, Saratov , Russia) (Russia, Saratov, Volskaya st., 1) E-mail: [email protected] UDC 81 Kudryashova, S.V.

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Introduction
1. History of borrowing
2. Reasons for borrowing
3. Stages of borrowing
4. Foreign language vocabulary
5. Signs of loan words
6. Borrowing processes
Conclusion
List of sources used

Introduction

The question of how to approach the study and scientific description of language requires certain philosophical and methodological prerequisites for understanding the nature and role of language among the phenomena of reality.

We all recognize that language is "the most important means of human communication", that it is needed by all people who form a collective.

Language is not an ideology, but a tool of a special kind, which has not a design, like any material tool, say, an ax or a plow, but a structure and systemic organization, then for all speakers the first task is to practically own this tool in its given state ...

In any language, speech is the main element. As you know, speech consists of words and phrases, individual sentences. Many words in Russian are borrowed from other languages. Their knowledge is necessary, since in Everyday life we constantly encounter them. These are words that refer both to the everyday sphere, and to the sphere of public life, and to certain special industries and spheres, but more or less known not only to specialists, but also to a wide range of Russian speakers. These words and their knowledge, therefore, are an indicator of general culture and education.

Knowledge of the word is many-sided. This is the knowledge of what it means, and the areas in which it occurs, and how it is more appropriate to use it, and, finally, the knowledge of where the word is taken from, how it arose in the language, from which language and when it was borrowed.

Many are concerned about the current state of Russian speech, what is happening to it: first of all, writers, language teachers who deal with the word professionally, as well as politicians, public figures, scientists, journalists, doctors. And, of course, linguists: although they are called upon to study the processes that take place in the language with an open mind and comprehensively, they are also far from indifferent to everything that threatens the unity and integrity of the literary language, which shakes its norm, destroys cultural traditions.

1. History of borrowing

Language in its present state cannot be unified, since it represents a combination of separate individual languages. The solution to practical questions should be based on how close these individual languages ​​are to each other at the present time.

The development of almost every natural language is characterized by the process of borrowing words from other languages.

Much in the Russian language was borrowed from Indo-European culture. It is assumed that the original territory of the eastern Indo-European tribes, including the ancestors of the Slavs, was the north-west of Russia, the Baltic Sea basin. Comparative study of Indo-European languages ​​proves a special closeness between Slavic and Baltic languages.

Often, a foreign-language word is associated with something ideologically or spiritually alien, even hostile, as was the case, for example, in the late 1940s during the fight against servility before the West. But there are other times in the history of society when a more tolerant attitude towards external influences and, in particular, to the borrowing of new foreign-language words prevails. Such a time can be considered the end of the last century and the beginning of the current one, when such political, economic and cultural conditions arose and exist that determined the predisposition of Russian society to the adoption of a new and widespread use of previously existing, but special foreign language vocabulary.

History contains many examples how at key, turning points, the language vividly reacted to the changed environment, absorbing and processing new words and concepts in order to adequately and fully describe the surrounding reality.

In general, in Russian scientists distinguish several stages of borrowing:

• the era of the adoption of Christianity, the influence of the Greek language;
• the period of the influence of the Turkic peoples (XVI-XVII centuries);
• period influence Polish language(XVI-XVIII centuries);
• the era of borrowings from the Dutch language (XVIII century);
• the period of influence of the German and French languages ​​(XVIII-XIX centuries);
• the era of the English language (XX century. to the present).

According to the calculations of scientists, about half of the words in Russian are of foreign origin, while many words appeared in our language relatively recently. As a rule, until the end of the 18th century, borrowings came mainly from oral speech, since reading was the lot of a rather narrow segment of the population. With this type of borrowing, the transcription of foreign words took place. Later, with the strengthening of the role of newspapers and magazines, with the widespread distribution of printed editions, borrowings began to penetrate the language mainly in a printed way, words were subjected to both transcription and transliteration.

2. Reasons for borrowing

The main external reason is the borrowing of a word along with the borrowing of a thing or concept. For example, with the advent of such things as a car, conveyor belt, radio, cinema, TV, laser and many others, their names also entered the Russian language. Most of the borrowings are associated with the development of science, technology, culture, economy, industrial relations. Many of these words firmly enter life, and then lose their novelty and pass into the active vocabulary. So, in the 50-70s. XX century a large number of terms related to the development of astronautics appeared: cosmonaut, cosmodrome, cosmovision, telemetry, spacecraft, etc. Today all these words have become common.

Another reason is the need to designate some special kind of objects or concepts.

Most often, the need for naming objects and concepts arises in various branches of science and technology, therefore, there are so many foreign terms among scientific and technical terms.

Finally, the borrowing of new words is due to the influence of foreign culture, dictated by the fashion for foreign words.

3. Stages of borrowing

All words, getting from the source language into the borrowing language, go through the first stage - penetration. At this stage, words are still connected with the reality that gave rise to them. V early XIX century, among the many new words that came from the English language, there were, for example, a tourist and a tunnel. They were defined in the dictionaries of their time as follows: a tourist - an Englishman traveling around the world, a tunnel - in London, an underground passage under the bottom of the Thames River (ibid.). When the word has not yet taken root in the borrowing language, variants of its pronunciation and spelling are possible: dollar, doller, dollar (English Dollar).

At this stage, even a foreign language reproduction of a word in writing is possible. In Pushkin's “Eugene Onegin”: “Before him is a bloody roast-beef, / And truffles, the luxury of young years…”. Let's pay attention, the word truffle, written in Russian, seems to Pushkin already mastered language. Gradually, the word of a foreign language, thanks to its frequent use in oral and written form, takes root, its external form takes on a stable form, the word is adapted according to the norms of the borrowing language. This is the period of borrowing, or entering the language. At this stage, the strong semantic (meaning-related) influence of the source language is still noticeable.

At the stage of mastering a foreign language word among native speakers of one language, folk etymology begins to take effect. When a foreign word is perceived as incomprehensible, they try to fill its empty sound form with the content of a closely sounding and close in meaning original word.

A famous example is spinjak (from the English pea-jacket - jacket) - an unfamiliar word correlated in the folk.

The last stage of penetration of a foreign word into the borrowing language is rooting, when the word is widely used among native speakers of the receiving language and is fully adapted according to the rules of the grammar of this language. It is included in a full-fledged life: it can grow overgrown with one-root words, form abbreviations, acquire new shades of meanings, etc. before.

When the Slavic world just adopted Christianity and at the same time collided with Byzantine culture, the heir to the greatest culture of antiquity, a stream of new words (Greek in origin) poured into the language, some of which remained only in literary monuments, and some are still alive. These are borrowing words: angel, apostle, arithmetic, fragrance, astronomy, barbarian, grammar, demon, devil, deacon (archdeacon), gospel, evangelist, bishop, heretic, abbot, idol, priest (bishop), icon, hippodrome, historian , history, cell, monastery, marble, chamber, pop, psalm, sandals, verse, meal, philosopher, date, economy (originally an icon), all current names of months (from Latin through Greek), many names of precious and semiprecious stones (onyx, sardonyx, etc.).

Words of other languages ​​used in Russian as regular lexical units are called foreign language vocabulary. Borrowing is based on trade, cultural, scientific ties between peoples and, as a consequence, language contacts. In the overwhelming majority, foreign words were borrowed by the Russian language along with a thing, a concept: school - Greek word, class - Latin, portfolio - French, satchel - German, pencil - Turkic, pioneer - English, tea - Chinese, candy - Italian, tundra - Finnish.

As you know, a borrowed word can denote a special kind of an object, a concept that existed in the Russian language. For example, the word jam from English means "a special kind of jam", from French, for example, a porter - "a type of service in a hotel."

The reason for borrowing words from other languages ​​may also be the desire to replace a descriptive expression, a phrase, with one word. Let's take an example: the English word sniper instead of the phrase "marksman". Or, for example, a motel (English word) - instead of "hotel for motorists", tour (French word) - instead of "round trip".

Foreign words penetrated into the Russian language at different periods of its history. Some of these words came from the Old Russian language, which, in turn, could receive them from the Proto-Slavic. Such ancient borrowings from the Germanic languages ​​are, for example, prince, king, beech, carp, onion (as a plant), stable.

It should be said that borrowing a word may not be direct, but through another language. So, many Greekisms penetrated into the Old Russian language through the Old Church Slavonic, through the Turkic languages ​​the words of other eastern languages ​​were borrowed. The words beads, dagger are borrowed from Arabic. Bucket, turquoise, cripple are borrowed from Persian. At a later time, Greek words penetrated through various Western European languages. Such as anatomy, geometry, philosophy, analysis, democracy, politics, drama, tragedy, architecture. Latin words: inertia, radius, student, dean, dictatorship, republic.

Since the era of Peter I, the expansion of the vocabulary of the Russian language begins by borrowing from Western European languages. The terms of the maritime business were borrowed from the Dutch language. For example, words such as boatswain, harbor, sailor, storm. And also from the English language: emergency, boat. At a later time, sports terms were borrowed from the English language. Let's take an example: boxing, volleyball, start, finish, champion. Military terms came from German to Russian, for example: parapet, camp, officer, soldier, bayonet. And mining terms such as mine, adit, drift. The terms of art were borrowed from the French language: ballet, stalls, landscape, still life, director. Literary terms: genre, novel, feuilleton, march. Culinary: dessert, cutlet, soup, mashed potatoes, stew. Clothes names: jacket, muffler, suit, coat. Musical terms were included from the Italian language into Russian. For example: aria, baritone, cello, mandolin, serenade and many others.

At the very beginning of the 20s of the XX century, due to the isolation of the country, borrowings become few in number. In the 1920s, the influence on the literary language of vernacular, dialects, and jargons was especially noticeable. The strengthening of the norms of the literary language, which began in the 30s, sifted out many words used in various literary genres in the previous period, but some of these words remained in the literary language. In the late 1920s and 1930s, mainly English words were borrowed. Such as jazz, harvester, conveyor, container, speedometer, trolley. From common parlance and dialects, such words as wilderness, milkmaid, darkened, biscuit, kosovitsa, hassle, newcomer, day off, ladle, comb, study entered into literary use. Jargon - junk. Blat, thug, buzz. Some of these words have lost their non-literary connotation, while others still refer to colloquial or vernacular vocabulary.

Literary use also includes professionalisms. In the 1920s, such words as interlayer, bow, spike, linkage, cell. In the 30s - the words: gas, loading, refueling, filming, listening, shipping, rolling, sorting.

In the 40s, especially in the late 40s - early 50s, due to a sharply negative attitude towards everything foreign, borrowing of words is rare. The process of borrowing has intensified since the second half of the 50s, mainly from English: scuba gear, biathlon, jeans, clips, camping, motel, nylon, transistor, hobbies, curtains and others.

In the Russian language there is such a thing as internationalism. These words are borrowed by the Russian language. But they are inherent in the same meaning to many other, including unrelated, languages. These words are mainly based on Greek and Latin morphemes. Internationalism words include such words as association, bureaucracy, demonstration, inertia, intellectual, classification, communism, culture, morality, nation, popular, press, proletariat, reform, specialist, telephone, utopia, civilization, energy and others. The main part of internationalism words are the terms of science, technology, social and political life, economics, literature, art, sports.

In addition to internationalism words, there is such a concept as tracing words (translated from French "calque" - tracing paper means "copy", "imitation").

Calci are borrowings by literal translation. Distinguish between word-formation, semantic and phraseological tracing papers:

• Derivational tracing paper is a word in the Russian language that arose as a result of a Pomorphic translation of a foreign language word. Let's take an example: the word "alphabet" comes from the Greek word "alphabetos". “Hydrogen comes from the Latin word“ hydrogenium ”. The word "subdivision" comes from the French word "subdivision". "Skyscraper" comes from the English "Sky-scraper".
• Semantic tracing paper is the meaning of a Russian word that appeared under the influence of a foreign language word due to the coincidence of their other meanings. For example, let's take the word "give" - ​​it means "to give something to someone." For example, give a glass of water. Under the influence of the French word "donner", the word "give" acquired the meaning of "arrange", that is, for example, "to give dinner." And under the influence of the German word "geben" acquired the meaning of "teach", that is, to give a lesson.
• Phraseological tracing paper is a stable combination of words that arose as a result of a word-by-word translation of a foreign language phraseological unit. For example: “groBe Augen machen”, which literally means “make big eyes” in Russian. Or the phrase "take action" comes from the French phraseology "prendre des mesures".

In the Russian language, there is also such a concept as "phraseological half-calico". In the phraseological semi-calculus, part of the components of the foreign language phraseological unit is translated, part is left without translation. Let's take an example. "Punch a hole" comes from the French "battre en breche". That is, in this case, only the word "break through" is translated - battre, the word "breach" is left without translation "breche".

To borrowed words from foreign languages also include words-exoticism. Exotisms are words that are used in the Russian language and call the phenomena of life, everyday life and culture of other peoples. Exotisms are, for example, the name of monetary units: guilder, dinar, dollar, drachma, yen, krone, lira and others.

Names of dwellings: wigwam, saklya, yaranga.

The names of the villages: aul, kishlak. Garments: epancha, zhupan, kimono, burqa, sari, chador, turban and others.

As well as positions, titles and people, as well as by their occupation and position: abbot, hidalgo, kaiser, priest, lady, policeman and others.

State and public institutions: Bundestag, Reichstag, sporting and so on.

5. Signs of loan words

Borrowed words can be identified by some criteria:

A graphic sign of borrowed words:

the letter "a" at the beginning of the word: August, diamond, watermelon. In addition to interjections: "ah", "aha", the union "a";

the presence of the letter "f" in a word: fact, rhyme, graph;

the letter "e" - screen, element, sir; except for pronouns and interjections: "this", "sort of", "eh" and others;

borrowed words are also distinguished by the presence of a combination of vowels in the root of the word. For example, oasis, virtuoso, cocoa;

double consonants in words such as bath, grammar, collective;

a combination of consonants like gz, kz. For example, a zigzag, a train station. J - jam, loggia, bridge. Ng - penguin, slogan;

letter combinations ge, ke, he in the words coat of arms, lackey, mohair. Bu, pyu, vu, mu, gyu, kyu in words, for example: bust, puree, revue, murid, guis, ditch.

Phonetic signs:

unstressed vowel [o] in words: b [o] lero, d [o] sie, m [o] derat [o];

hard paired consonant before “e”, for example: mo [de] l, an [te] nna, ti [re].

Morphological signs:

non-inclination of nouns and adjectives. For example: coffee, pari, stew, tango, beige, burgundy, khaki.

6. Processes associated with the development of borrowings

One of the characteristic features of the Russian language of the 80s - 90s is the process of intensification of borrowed vocabulary: the expansion of the use of special foreign language terminology related to economics, finance, commercial activity and some other areas, and the emergence of a large number of borrowed neologisms, also belonging to mainly to special areas.

The place of stress in borrowed words does not always depend on the source language. Borrowed words are combined in Russian into groups according to the similarity of their finite elements, while the etymology of words is usually of secondary importance. Oscillation of stress in borrowed words is inevitable, it indicates that borrowed words interact with Russian vocabulary and are gradually assimilated by it, becoming a systemic phenomenon from a non-systemic phenomenon.

New borrowings dating back to the 20th century, as a rule, follow the stress of the source language, because in most cases the time has not yet come for them to hesitate. This should be preceded by a certain period, during which the words should “take root” in the language, become known to the majority of representatives of the linguistic community and “find” an analogy for themselves among the words included in the vocabulary system of the given language.

A feature of the vocabulary borrowed during the observed period is its massiveness, novelty, homogeneity in relation to the source language: the overwhelming majority of words are borrowed from the English language.

The sphere of distribution of borrowed words is quite specific. First of all, these are the "professional languages" of specialists in a particular field (computer technology, financial and commercial activities, sports), but also in the field of politics, art, fashion, music, dance, etc.

Conclusion

To summarize, the following can be noted:

1. The vocabulary of any language is expanded and enriched, including at the expense of the words of other languages. This is a natural phenomenon, and in certain historical periods even inevitable. The development of science and technology, international contacts in various fields contribute to the influx of new words into the language.

2. "Everyday speech does not experience any noticeable influx of foreign words, and this is understandable: being mostly bookish or special words, borrowings are used mainly in the genres of book speech, in journalistic, scientific and technical texts." (L. P. Krysin)

3. The process of borrowing is not only the expansion of the vocabulary of the language, it also involves the development of someone else's experience through the language.

4. The problem of penetration into the language and the use of borrowed vocabulary is quite controversial. On the one hand, in some cases, borrowed words are used only because it is fashionable. On the other hand, foreign words enrich the language, serve to designate new realities, to differentiate concepts.

5. Some anglicisms can no longer be thrown out of the language, they have acquired social significance. However, do not overuse them. After all, "the strength of the people is in their native language." So, it is safe to say that Englishisms in the Russian language take a strong position. Our task is to learn how to use them correctly.

List of sources used

1. Electronic source - http://reshal.ru/
2. Electronic source - http://www.km.ru/
3. Electronic source - http://ext.spb.ru/2011-03-29-09-03-14/100-russian/2407-2013-02-24-08-54-55.html
4. Electronic source - http://www.london-moscow.ru/_zaimstvovaniya_v_russkom_yazike
5. Electronic source - http://www.philology.ru/linguistics2/krysin-02.htm
6. Electronic source - http://www.sgu.ru/sites/default/files/textdocsfiles/2014/03/13/voronova_e.n.pdf

Abstract on the topic "The process of borrowing foreign words in Russian" updated: October 22, 2018 by the author: Scientific Articles.Ru

It's no secret that not all words that make up the lexical stock of the native language are native Russian. Even from the pronunciation and / or spelling of some words, you can easily guess that their country of origin is Britain, France, Germany or some other. What are the reasons for borrowing, what are they for, and what kind of borrowings are generally found in modern Russian?

What is borrowing

And although such a question, perhaps, is somewhat silly to consider (everyone should understand what the speech is about), one cannot start a conversation about borrowing without defining the term itself. So, linguists call borrowing, firstly, any foreign word that appears in the native language from a foreign one, even if it does not outwardly differ from Russian words by its morphemes (parts of the word). Secondly, borrowing means the very process of accepting a given alien element by the language, getting used to it, and gradually using it by native speakers. Borrowing is an integral part of the process of developing and changing speech. Foreign words in Russian make up no more than ten percent of all vocabulary available in it (nevertheless, this is a lot).

Why do we need

Why can't a language develop on its own, without outside interference? What is the role of borrowing? Why are they so necessary - and these are not big words, they are really needed.

First of all, it is worth realizing the fact that the process of borrowing is characteristic of any language, this is a normal and even inevitable phenomenon. They play a truly important role in a language that absorbs new words. First, he is thus enriched, his vocabulary increases. Secondly, language, speech is a direct and immediate reflection of the relationship between different peoples and nationalities. Thirdly, borrowings often act as a "transmitter" of new derivational morphemes, thanks to which new words subsequently appear (we will return to this issue in more detail a little later).

Borrowings are necessary when there is absolutely no word in the native language to express a particular concept. This situation is considered the main reason for their appearance and the most popular. Borrowing then acts as a "savior" of the receiving language. A close (but not the same) reason for the appearance in the language of new words from another source language is the emergence of new objects that require one or another nomination. In addition, in some cases, borrowing words in modern Russian appear as a kind of tribute to fashion. Another reason lies in the fact that often in the Russian language there is a whole expression to denote a concept, while foreigners use only one word. This reason can be briefly described as "convenience".

The need to fill in the gaps in the expressive means of the language also leads to the emergence of foreign borrowed words. By the way, such a (foreign) word often, in the opinion of many, sounds better, it is more solid, pretentious, more prestigious - and this also gives a reason to take it for yourself. There are a lot of reasons for borrowing in the modern Russian language - another question is whether they are always so necessary and used exclusively in essence. We will return to this issue a little later.

Where do they come from

Many people mistakenly believe that only the English language gives us its words and expressions. However, this is fundamentally wrong, despite the fact that there are really enough borrowings from English (Anglicisms) in our language.

Throughout its centuries-old history, the Russian people have had close economic, cultural, political and other relationships with a variety of peoples. This could not but affect the vocabulary - the most receptive and mobile layer of the language, which, like a sponge, absorbed many elements of foreign cultures.

The Russian language contains words from English, French, German, Latin, Greek, Turkic, Scandinavian, Slavic languages. For example, "notebook" came from Greek, "waltz" - from French, "tomato" - from Italian. At the same time, it is interesting that it is far from always possible to easily and quickly understand the "country of origin" of a particular word or expression. The etymology of many of them is still a mystery to linguists and philologists.

Borrowing ways

What are the ways in which words are borrowed in modern Russian? There are only two such options: oral and written speech. The first method often greatly changes the appearance of the word (for example, the potatoes that came to us from the Italian language look like tartufolo in the original), the second, on the contrary, leaves the lexemes practically intact. In addition, a word can pass from language to language directly, or maybe through the so-called intermediary language.

Classification

Borrowings in modern Russian can be divided into several groups in different ways. The first permissible classification is according to the source, that is, according to the language from which the given word came. Each language has its own term. So, English borrowings in modern Russian are usually called Anglicisms, Czech ones - Bohemisms (because the historical name of the region is Bohemia), French - Gallicisms (from Gaul). Words that came from Hungary are called Magyarisms or Ungarisms, and from any Oriental language they are called Orientalisms, and so on.

Another way of classification is by the type of contact, as already mentioned above: either directly, or with the help of an intermediary, or orally or in writing (through books). By the way, art workers often resorted to the latter method, finding and reviving archaisms (old words that are not used today) in their masterpieces - for example, Richard Wagner or Alexei Tolstoy.

The third category is the method of borrowing: the whole word or some part of it can go into a new language (both will be lexical borrowing), in addition, an already existing word may have a new meaning (semantic borrowing).

Finally, it is permissible to classify all foreign language borrowings in modern Russian into necessary and unnecessary, in other words, justified and unjustified. The first category will include those words that had no analogues in the language before their appearance, and their appearance was necessary to describe a particular phenomenon and / or object. There are a great many such words, for example, telephone, mixer, snowboard, chocolate, bowling and the like. These lexemes have filled the gaps in our language, so their appearance is justified.

It is quite another matter - foreign words that appear in Russian as a synonym for existing concepts: "message" - "message", "goalkeeper" - "goalkeeper" and the like. As a rule, such equivalents are just the same Anglicisms and are associated with the general fashion for everything English and American, associated with "aligning" with these countries. Meanwhile, the presence of words in the language that duplicate each other ultimately leads to the elimination of one of the synonyms from speech. It is impossible to predict which word will disappear - your own or a borrowed one.

Borrowing periods

Below will be a little more detailed about the words that came from the English, German and French languages. In the meantime, it's worth giving general characteristics borrowings in modern Russian.

This process began in antiquity - perhaps even in the prehistoric period. This issue has not yet been fully studied and is of the most vital interest both for philologists and linguists, and for historians. If we talk about the well-known periods of borrowing, then the first undoubtedly refers to the Old Russian language - then words from Slavic (for example, the names of the months) and non-Slavic (usually Baltic and Scandinavian) languages ​​(village, herring, anchor and many other).

Separately, it is necessary to mention the influence of the Greek language (largely due to the closest ties with Byzantium, as well as thanks to the establishment of Christianity in Russia) - it was he who gave the Russian "brother" many scientific terms (such as mathematics or history), religious concepts (anathema, icon or bishop) and so on.

The seventeenth century was marked by borrowings from Latin - since then they have tirelessly appeared in our language. Some of the lexemes that arose then exist to this day (for example, the doctor). At the same time, under Peter, the active penetration of European culture into Russia began, which was most directly reflected in the language. Many concepts of military, scientific, cultural terminology and many, many others have been known to Russian speakers since that time: ammunition, cruiser, captain, general, tariff and the like. Do not forget about the nautical terminology, because it was Peter who actively developed navigation. Thanks to his connections with Holland, the Russian language was enriched with such words as sailor, navigator, drift and others. Peter's reforms and innovations gave way to a variety of German-, French- and English-speaking borrowings in modern Russian, and this is taking into account that the emperor himself demanded not to use foreign words in his speech.

In the eighteenth century, French became practically a court language, extremely widespread in Russia. This contributed to the fact that a huge number of words from the Dumas language penetrated into Russian speech. Basically, these were words describing everyday life, clothes, food: marmalade, vest, couch, and so on. In the same period, words from Italy and Spain appeared in Russian vocabulary, however, in terms of their number they were significantly inferior to French borrowings: aria, piano, short story, guitar, tenor - all words similar and familiar to the Russian ear came to us from these warm countries ...

Similar lexical transformations continued in the nineteenth century, until they were replaced by Anglicisms - these are the borrowings that characterize the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. The flow of English words into our speech is due to the intensification of all kinds of ties with foreign representatives, and since the international language in which all business is conducted is English, such a trend is not surprising. All these words can rightfully be considered the newest borrowings in the modern Russian language. And most of them have already completely assimilated.

Categories

There are several groups, or categories, into which all borrowings in modern Russian can be divided. The first of them will include all those words that have already lost all possible signs of their foreign origin. For example, the word bed - hardly a large number of people know that this word came into our language from Greek. Or such a lexeme as a chair - who would have thought that his homeland is Germany.

The second group includes words that retain some elements of a foreign sound that is unusual for Russians: for example, a French veil or British jazz - these words have long been familiar to us, but nevertheless, something inherent in them makes us guess about their non-Russian origin (sometimes prefixes contribute to this - for example, trans or anti).

The third category includes political, cultural and scientific concepts. Borrowings in modern Russian are often words used in several languages ​​at once - in other words, internationalisms. Such words include, for example, telegraph.

And finally, the fourth group is the words of the so-called limited use. The problem of borrowing in modern Russian is such that not all lexemes that have come into our speech are becoming common and popular. Some remain uncommon book vocabulary - such words, as a rule, have long-known and familiar to the inhabitants of Russia synonyms (this again brings us back to the question of unjustified borrowing): for example, shock - overwhelm, immoral - immoral, and the like. Not to the book, but to the lexemes that have an alternative version in the Russian speech, include such "noble" words as rendezvous (we more often say - a date).

In addition, this category includes words that are quite common in our speech, but at the same time retain a foreign spelling - merci or okay. They also have equivalents, but they can be considered as a kind of expressive means that serve to decorate and give more expression.

How to find out borrowing

We learned above that many words that came into the Russian language from others have already become so accustomed to it that they have completely lost the signs of their origin. Therefore, sometimes it is not easy to understand that you have a foreign word in front of you. However, there are still ways to solve this problem. So, borrowings in modern Russian can be recognized as follows:

1. If the word begins with the letter "a" (except for the primordially Russian interjections - ah, aha, ay): questionnaire, aster, lampshade.
2. Foreign words are also indicated by the presence of the letter "f" in the word (anywhere) - also with the exception of Russian interjections such as fu: cafe, decanter, fact, wardrobe, February.
3. The joint of two or more vowels at the root: duel, poet, theater, guard, diet.
4. The presence of the letter "e": echo, peer, sir, aloe, floor (except for Russian interjections and pronouns eh, e and others).
5. Combinations of kyu, pyu, mu and others: debut, puree, cuvette, muesli, bill.
6. Doubled consonant at the root of the word: Saturday, abbot, alley.
7. Combinations of ke, ge, he at the root of the word: rocket, coat of arms, scheme.
8. Unswerving words: subway, coat, coffee, cafe, cinema.
9. Türkic words can be recognized by the endings -lyk or -cha: bashlyk, cherry plum; Greek - at the end of -os: space, epic, chaos. The sign of Latin borrowings is the endings -us, -um, -cy and the like: plenum, radius, third, and so on. German is recognized by the combinations -sht- and -shp- at the beginning of the word, as well as by the ending -master: stamp, punks, accompanist. The English tend to use the combinations -tch- and -j- in words, as well as the endings -ing, -men or -er: rally, timer, businessman, match, manager.

Tracing paper

The so-called dictionary of modern borrowings in Russian also includes tracing papers. This French term denotes a word or even a whole phrase that was created according to a foreign model, but using original Russian elements. As a rule, such words arise as a result of translation of foreign-language tokens in parts. Similar examples of modern borrowings in Russian can serve, for example, the verb look - it is a pomorphic translation of the German verb aussehen. Such words appear mainly due to translations as neoplasms.

There are also so-called half-calques - words half created from Russian elements, and half from foreign languages. These lexemes include the word humanity, the suffix of which is Russian, and the root comes from German.

English-speaking borrowings in modern Russian

The first relationship between Britain and Russia began in the sixteenth century - first trade, then political and diplomatic ties. In the same period, the first "news" from the British appeared in Russian speech - such words as lord or mister. A huge number of English borrowings in modern Russian came into it back in the era of Peter the Great - mainly, of course, these were terms related to maritime affairs, trade, and from the military field.

Anglicisms continued to appear in the Russian language throughout the entire subsequent history, but it became possible to speak of a new round of borrowings after the strengthening of the influence of the United States of America. Active interaction with Britain and America in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries resulted in an incredible number of English words that appeared in our speech. Moreover, the fashion for English expressions contributes to this: even the names of many positions and professions in the Russian language now sound completely in Russian - for example, the cleaning lady is called nothing other than "cleaning manager".

German loanwords in Russian

The earliest borrowings from German were recorded in Russian as early as the thirteenth century. These are words such as master, knight, duke, penny, pound and others, and they are usually found in various kinds of letters and annals. A large number of German military terminology supplemented the Russian language in the seventeenth century (for example, soldier), and in the era of Peter, such German borrowings appeared in Russian as a chisel, drill, workbench, wax, paste - words characteristic of a working person.

The fact that many of the lexemes of our language are in fact originally German, most of the population does not even know. Meanwhile, words such as, for example, fraer, iceberg, car, tie, torch, date, grind, tomato, painter, paramedic, post office, locksmith, gamekeeper, mouthpiece, button, apron, washer, canister, sleeve are famous for their German origin. , howitzer, barrier, arsenal, landscape, aiguillette, flute, horn, fireworks and many, many others.

Borrowings from French

The French borrowings available in modern Russian first appeared in it during the time of Peter - despite the fact that relations between Russia and France existed earlier. Peter, who was interested in the achievements of the French in science and technology, contributed to the appearance of gallicisms in Russian speech. At first, the French words, with which the inhabitants of Russia began to juggle, related exclusively to military terminology and science, but later the range of their use expanded - up to the everyday level.

The latter happened after the French language became the court language of the Russian tsars - during the reign of Catherine II. To this day, in Russian there are many lexemes that came from French: shop, parliament, regime, advance, coupe, luggage, trench, dugout, crew, kiosk, credit, patrol, bank, taxi, lawn, premiere, gallery, city hall and many others.

Foreign borrowings in Russian is a topic of incredible interest not only for specialists, but also simply for native speakers. It's so exciting to know where certain words came from in our speech.

At all times and in almost all countries, borrowing is treated in two ways: either borrowing is good, not scary for Russian, in particular, the language, enriches it; or borrowing is a threat to the very existence of the national language, leading to the loss of identity. A similar divergence of opinions is observed in our country. Moreover, these views are reflected in such currents as Slavophilism and Westernism.

It is obvious that the borrowing of words from other languages ​​is a natural, necessary and really existing process, which is due to international relations. This is the result of linguistic contacts, relations between peoples and states.

However, the question of the relationship between "ours" and "others", about the use of borrowings in Russian speech has always caused heated discussions, fierce disputes.

For the first time, M.V. Lermontov: "Take care of the properties of your own language, because what we love in the style of Latin, French or German sometimes deserves a laugh in Russian."

It was in the 18th century that the debate about borrowing arose. About a hundred years later, when in the first half of the 19th century linguistics turned into an independent science, the problem of foreign words in Russian speech became even more acute. Moreover, not only scientists, but also critics and writers expressed their opinions.

A.N. Tolstoy wrote: “A certain percentage of foreign words grows into the language. And in each case, the artist's instinct must determine this measure of foreign words, their necessity. Better to say an elevator than a self-elevator, a telephone, than a long-distance talker, proletariat than beggars, but where you can find a root Russian word, - you need to find it. "

The same idea is expressed by V.G. Belinsky: “The word wet-shoes could very well express the concept expressed by the word galoshes, which is completely meaningless for us; but it’s not forcibly to force the whole people instead of galoshes to use wet shoes if they don’t want to! ”. He said very well: “The purists are afraid of an unnecessary flood of foreign words: the fear is more than unfounded. An unnecessary word will never stay in the language, no matter how hard you try to put it into use. "

V.I. Dal, creator of the famous dictionary of the Russian language. He suggested replacing foreign words with Russian synonyms: muffler - nose-tuck, gymnastics - dexterity, pastry chef - sweetie.

Now, what Dahl proposed seems ridiculous, because the above words have become firmly established in the Russian language, and we do not feel foreignness from them. An example of the second attitude can be the great Russian critic V.G. Belinsky, who argued that borrowings are not terrible for the Russian language.

Alexander Solzhenitsyn had a negative attitude to borrowing. In the novel In the First Circle, one of the heroes preaches a negative attitude towards foreign words, replacing them with Russian formations. Although even he cannot do without borrowing.

The computerization and "internetization" of society led to the fact that a huge number of English words broke through the global network into oral speech. It is with this that the worries of Russianists are connected: the use of Anglicisms in Internet communication today has become not just a fashionable hobby. More and more often, carriers of the "great" and "mighty" simply cannot express their thoughts otherwise than with the help of borrowed words. It is obvious that the Russian language in which communication is conducted on the forums and in in social networks, will be incomprehensible to a villager or a professor of venerable age. But what happens to borrowed words on the Internet is very similar to the foreign word entry system described above.

Just look at the use of two foreign words: "flood", which means a meaningless message, the text of which does not carry a semantic meaning, and "ban" - blocking a user on the forum, which prohibits him from sending messages.

“Natives of the Russian language do not just use these words, they transform them, as a result of which such neoplasms appear as“ flood ”- write meaningless messages or“ flood ”, which is used in the context of“ do not breed a flood ”,“ do not make a flood ” , to ban - that is, to prohibit someone from sending messages. " Explanatory dictionary of the modern Russian language. Language changes at the end of the twentieth century. Astrel. 2005 from 200.

These words, existing in the slang of Internet users, are a vivid illustration of the ability of the language system to receive, assimilate and process new information. Language control its system and its purity, but people themselves have a significant impact on the development of the language.

“Borrowings are in every language. In some it is more, in some less, but nothing can be done with them, no matter how hard you try. After all, foreign words, as a rule, are international, international, denote terms and objects that are common, common among a given people, a given culture and a given language with other cultures and peoples. And already on this alone, in order not to remain in closed solitude and isolation from the common paths of mankind, they should not be avoided, and, probably, it is impossible. " Ed. A. Pain. Russian language - theory and practice. Tutorial. Minsk. "POPURRI" 2000, 39-40.

What original words can be used to replace kimono, ikebana, mistral, corsets, bowls, and who would think of it?

Finally, not a single language of science, art, politics, law, music, sports is unthinkable without them.

And how to do without a coat, muffler, a diplomat (briefcase), hat, umbrella, cars, trams, metro, trolleybuses, coffee, tea, cigarettes, cigarettes, wallets - the foreigners we need, many of whom have left and forgotten along with the objects, blow archaic, found in literature - bouquets, puffs, liveries, sweaters, stacks, boots, muffs, corsets, but many have appeared quite recently? And so it is constantly: some come, others leave, some of them stay for a long time and permanently, they get used to it, consider it a family, some are just a guest who has sat down, visited and gone home. Is it worth it to expel them indiscriminately, replacing them with their own, homegrown and not accepted language?

However, recently the flow of borrowings is so great that it makes you seriously think about the future of the Russian language. The oral speech of a Russian person turns out to be stuffed with English and American expressions not best quality... The wave of foreign language borrowings that poured into our language due to a number of historical events and technological discoveries made it almost impossible to use colloquial vocabulary without using borrowings. Moreover, the process of globalization and the development of high technologies makes the process of penetration of borrowings practically endless.

This situation forces us to seriously attend to the development of the Russian language. Borrowings must be treated with a great deal of caution, since in our time there is a tendency towards an increase in the amount of foreign language vocabulary in our language.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary is made up not only of primordially Russian words, but also words borrowed from other languages. Borrowing as an element of a foreign language, transferred from one language to another as a result of linguistic contacts, can undoubtedly be considered as a way of replenishing the vocabulary of the language. Usually, words are borrowed, less often syntactic and phraseological turns.
The borrowing of sounds and word-formative morphemes occurs as a result of their secondary isolation from a larger number of borrowed words. Borrowings are adapted to the system of the borrowing language and are often so assimilated by them that the foreign-language origin of such words is not felt by the speakers of this language and is revealed only with the help of etymological analysis.
The influx of borrowings in the Russian language especially increased in the 90s of the twentieth century, which is associated with active social and political processes in Russia, changes in the economy, culture and moral orientation of society. The process of borrowing was covered in research and scientific literature in different periods of the country's development in different ways. This problem was dealt with by L.P. Krysin, V.M. Aristova, A.I.Dyakov. In their works, they investigated the causes of borrowing and the principles of assimilation of borrowings. By the end of the twentieth century, domestic linguists E.M. Vereshchagin, V.P. Kostomarov, S.G. Ter-Minasova et al. Investigate the process of borrowing from a cultural perspective. According to their research, the influence of the English language on the modern Russian language is felt both at the lexical, morphological, grammatical and phonetic levels, and at the level of the Russian-language culture.
One of the areas, especially strongly susceptible to changes in the lexical composition and borrowings, both lexical and cultural, is, today, the field of sports. Sports terms of English origin are so integral part of the modern Russian language that often their origin is not felt (for example: hockey, football, half time, start, finish, etc.). In recent years, many names for new sports have appeared: windsurfing, skateboard, freestyle, bobsleigh, ski-stream, skeleton, as well as various forms of leisure activities: bowling, diving, curling, etc. These words are very often found in magazines, TV programs.
The process of mastering the newest Anglicisms by the Russian language is influenced by various factors, one of which is “the presence of established systems of terms in the borrowing language” * related to a particular sphere.
The main reasons for borrowing sports vocabulary can be identified. This:
the need to name a new sport (curling, squash)

The need to distinguish between concepts that are similar in content (runner and sprinter - short distance runner)

The need for specialization of concepts (judge and referee - sports judge.)

Replacement of phrases with one word (streetball is street basketball, stayer is a long-distance runner)

You should also highlight the socio-psychological reasons:

Perception of a foreign language word as more prestigious, better sounding (bol, set);

The use of borrowed words in the speech of authority figures during popular TV programs, in articles in newspapers and magazines.

Phonetically and graphically, some Englishisms are subject to interference from the Russian language (for example, big air - big air or big air).
Grammatical assimilation. Most of the studied Anglicisms are included in the coordination system inherent in the Russian language. Nouns change in gender, number, case, etc. (diving, powerlifting competitions)
Semantic assimilation. Some unambiguous English sports terms retain a monosemy (narrow meaning) in the Russian language system, for example: scuba - scuba in diving (from the English scuba - self-contained underwater breathing apparatus).
For others, the lexical meaning is expanded due to determinologization, i.e. a sports term goes beyond its scope, for example: freestyle “… freestyle fans can be found even in the fashion industry; free style in clothes is chosen not only by the younger generation .. ". (TV program "Fashionable Sentence") If borrowed Anglicism has a synonym or a Russian analogue, Anglicism expresses a narrower and more specific concept (diving - diving, diving).
Topically, I have divided the words into six groups:
1. Sports names: baseball, windsurfing, diving, curling, snowboarding, etc.

2. Names of athletes and service personnel: goalkeeper, catcher, rider, runner, diver, midfielder, forward, etc.
3. Names of sports equipment, items of equipment, for example: scuba, snowboard, bat, etc.
4. Names of technical elements, techniques: sparring, crossing, offside, dribbling.
5. Names of errors, violations: penalty, strike, foul, break.
6. Names of sports grounds: outfield, base, court, ring, etc.
In the cultural aspect, there is a borrowing of the concept, as well as elements of the culture of the English-speaking countries. For example, the word "curling" includes, first, a concept defined as "a type of Scottish game in which participants compete in skating on smoothly polished ice. round stones... "*, and secondly - the concept of British" gentlemen ".
So, Englishisms, getting into the Russian language, gradually assimilate: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of word formation and inflection, to one degree or another losing their non-Russian pronunciation.
In addition, along with the English vocabulary, the Russian language borrows the cultural realities of the English people (sports), in particular, certain concepts of the English-speaking culture. It is not the first time that the Russian language is faced with the need to borrow foreign words, therefore those lexical units that will be in demand will enrich it, as has happened more than once in the past, and unclaimed ones will be rejected.

2.2 Specificity of translation of sports terms

Regardless of the context, the term is translated by the term - a full and absolute equivalent, and therefore, according to the opinion of a number of specialists, it belongs to the number of units that do not complicate the translator.
However, it should be noted that only ideally the term is unambiguous and devoid of synonyms and connotations. But even with this “ideal” position, it is possible to speak of its complete translatability only in those cases when the elements of terminology are in their natural environment, that is, in the scientific style of speech, in the sublanguage of science; we are primarily interested in the translation of a term in a literary text.
The myth of single meaning the term and its lack of synonyms can be easily dispelled with a simple dictionary reference - this is clearly seen in the comparative plan. Recently, elements of terminology - the further, the more - are found far beyond the scientific literature, but essentially in all genres: in the era of scientific and technological revolution, science and technology have become almost the main suppliers of new vocabulary for the modern general literary language. There is a lot of terminology in popular science and science fiction works, it is also in publicistic literature, terminology and fiction, and even poetry are not alien.
However, the behavior of the term in a scientific and in a literary text is not the same, as, accordingly, the functions it performs in these genres that are different in terms of means of expression are not the same. In its natural environment, as a component of the terminological system and sublanguage of the corresponding science, the term plays only a naming role, the role of a sign indicating a precisely defined concept, while in a work of art it performs primarily the stylistic task set by the author, without losing, however , and its objective meaning.
Before translating, the term must be recognized in the text, distinguished from the elements of general language vocabulary. Difficulties arise mainly due to homonymy (between two terms, between a term and a non-term), due to the assignment of a common lexical or phraseological unit - sometimes a "former term" - terminological status, as well as due to the "transparent" internal form of the term. Homonyms are sometimes easier to recognize among borrowed terms, but often they also make it difficult for the translator. The situation is more difficult with the terms primordial for IL. Many of them, being elements of the corresponding terminological system, have at the same time a sufficiently "transparent" internal form to mislead the translator. It happens that a scientific or technical concept is called in different languages ​​by terms that coincide in its internal form: eng, tooth, fr. dent, it. Zahn in many meanings are covered by subject content and internal form of Rus. tooth. But the trouble is that this cannot be considered a regularity: there are many terms for which such a coincidence is not observed.
By itself, the translation of terms in a literary text is subject, as a rule, to the basic principle of translation of this category of words: a term is translated by a term. Some prerequisites are also similar: to carry out such a translation, it is necessary that an equivalent term exists in the TL and the translator knows not only the fact of its presence, but also the exact form. These prerequisites require some clarification. The translator cannot "re-express" the term in TL, which is natural in relation to other lexical and phraseological means; the term FL should be replaced by the term TL in its generally accepted, official form, established in the appropriate terminology. But what to do when there is still no equivalent of the term in the language? Descriptive translation is indispensable here. So the translator has little choice: a term is needed; either he borrows it - usually from FL (transcription), or “composes” his own (tracing paper, neologism, compound term, etc.), or assigns the status of a term to a common linguistic unit.
When translating a literary text, in contrast to a scientific one, other transformations are also permissible: replacing a specific concept with a generic one (a boat instead of a skiff, or a gig); descriptive translation - a common language unit instead of a terminological unit, an approximate synonym replacement, and even a zero translation. And here, as in relation to realities, the choice of a suitable translation technique depends on the semantic significance of the term, on its "illumination" in the text. But basically this choice, as in relation to any lexical means, is determined by the context and, in particular, the stylistic role of the term. As a rule, in the absence of an equivalent term in the GL, the least desirable techniques are those that are inherent in terminological translation. Introducing a new term into a literary text that does not exist in the corresponding branch of science in the PJ is a very risky business. Word-creation in the field of terminology should be provided to specialists - scientists in cooperation with philologists, and the translator of fiction should be advised to resort to it only in extreme cases and certainly with the blessing of specialists.
Speaking about the stylistic function of the term and terminological or professional speech in fiction, it is necessary to point out the use of the term by the writer as an element of speech characteristics.
In direct speech, there are often not separate terms, but pieces of terminological text imitating "professional language", and even more often - stable phrases related by their origin to one or another field of science, but later received figurative meanings. In the scientific medical literature, terms that are devoid of a well-defined content are usually avoided: smallpox is preferred to be called variole, and chickenpox is varicella. In fiction, however, these popular, albeit not too definite, names are extremely convenient synonyms used by writers - in essence, like any synonyms - for example, to nuance the speech of different heroes, to build life-truth images. The position of a translator who has to repeat such a nuance in another language can be unenviable when there is no means suitable for the style in the TL.
However, with the development of medical science, many of the popular names for diseases either went out of use, or acquired clearer outlines and entered the medical nomenclature. On the other hand, many purely scientific names have become quite popular. Such "scientific" awareness of the broad masses of readers, especially in the field of medical, military, economic sciences, in the sciences of space, etc., allows for a fairly wide use of the corresponding terms in fiction without explaining them.
To summarize, let us present what has been said about terminological translation in the form of abstracts:
1. The basic principle of this translation is that a term is conveyed by a term.
2. Unlike the scientific text, in fiction terms, especially the native ones for FL, are more difficult to recognize; and the selection of methods for their translation is connected with their preliminary isolation from the general language vocabulary.

3. Deviations from the basic principle of translation are allowed mainly in cases where a term in a given text has no terminological meaning, does not carry a significant semantic load and, of course, if it has lost its connection with the corresponding terminological system.
4. In the absence of an equivalent term in a scientific text in a scientific text, they borrow it or create a new one, or attach a terminological meaning to a general literary unit, and in a literary text they prefer other methods, trying, nevertheless, not to violate the “terminological sound” of the text: replacing it with another ( usually close in meaning, and sometimes even far from equivalent) term, compensation of a species concept with a generic one, a synonym for varying degrees of closeness, approximate correspondence (with an ordinary word) and even a zero translation.
5. The internal form of the term, which is not taken into account when translating scientific literature, can have meaning in literary translation, but only in those cases when it plays a similar role in the original. The transparent inner form can, on the other hand, become a source of translation failures - due to the lack of recognition of the term or the inability to combine terminological meaning with the figurative one during translation.
The current state of philological scientific thought convincingly shows that every language has the main stages of its historical development, that its verbal structure is closely connected with the history of the development of the people, with social, political, cultural factors that determine its existence in each historical epoch. It is in dependence on these fundamental scientific provisions that one of the most important and urgent tasks of linguistic science becomes an extremely clear study of the lexical composition of the language, the ways of its development and enrichment, analysis and study of intra-linguistic processes, which greatly strengthens the theoretical and practical foundations of science.
Sports terminology belongs to the lexical layer of the special structure of the English language, which has not yet attracted the attention of linguists. Of course, it cannot be denied that a number of publications are devoted to sports terminology in various countries of the world, which, however, are more informative than scientific in nature. Therefore, a special study of English sports terminology in both diachronic and synchronous relations, bringing clarity to many unknown pages of the social, political and cultural life of past generations, seems to be a very important and urgent task of modern linguistics.