Grammatical means of the Russian language. Grammatical meanings and means of their expression in Russian

As you already know, two plans are important for the existence of any unit of language - paradigmatics and syntagmatics. And the formal grammatical means that Russian words have are paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

Paradigmatic formal-grammatical features of a word are a traditional object of study of morphology. The morphological paradigm of a word is a system of all grammatical varieties of a given word. The grammatical variety of a word that conveys a certain grammatical meaning is called a word form. For example, the noun sailor in speech can be represented by different word forms: sailor, sailor, sailors, etc., the verb worry - by word forms: worried, worried, worried, worried, worried, etc.

The ability of a word to form a morphological paradigm is called inflection. Some

there is no inflection of words: they always appear in the same form, that is, they are represented by the same word form (such, for example, are service words: y, but, only). Such words have zero paradigm. But for most words in the Russian language, the paradigm is not zero. So, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word fog is formed by word forms: fog, fog, fog, fog, fog, (o) fog, fogs, fogs, fogs, fogs, fogs, (o) fogs.

Synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound) word forms are distinguished.

Synthetic word forms consist of the stem of the word and inflectional affixes - endings, inflectional suffixes and postfixes: house-th (zero ending), school, quickest (superlative inflectional suffix and ending), read l and (inflectional suffix -l and ending - i), running usch-y (inflectional participle suffix and ending). In one synthetic word form there can be from one to three inflectional affixes; for example, in the verbal word form checking-l"-and-съ (The essays were checked by two examiners), the grammatical meanings are expressed by the inflectional past tense suffix -l*-, the ending -i- and the inflectional postfix of the passive voice -с.

In the formation of analytical word forms, auxiliary words play the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense forms of the auxiliary verb to be to the infinitive of imperfective verbs (read, run, etc.), an analytical form of the future tense is formed: I will read, I will run ', by adding the auxiliary word to the past tense form of the verb, the form of the subjunctive mood is formed: read would have run.

Sometimes in the morphological paradigm of a word there are both synthetic and analytical word forms: the strongest and the strongest, warmer and warmer. When inflecting nouns (brother, brother, brother ...), numerals (three, three, three ...) and pronouns (I, me, me ...), only synthetic word forms are used. Morphological paradigms of adjectives (new, newer, newest), verbs (built, build, will build, let's build), adverbs (loud, louder than anyone) and impersonally predicative words (sorry, most sorry) are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

Inflection has always been the main object of morphological analysis, because endings and inflectional suffixes in synthetic word forms, auxiliary words in analytical word forms are effective means of expressing grammatical meanings. So, thanks to the opposition of endings in the word forms student - students, magazine - magazines, the meanings of the number are expressed; in contrasting word forms I decided - I decide - I will decide, temporary meanings are expressed. Inflectional affixes of all three of the above types, as well as auxiliary words, refer to paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of an inflectional paradigm of a word).

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only by the listed paradigmatic formal grammatical means, but also with the help of syntagmatic means, i.e., such formal indicators that appear in the phrase. For example, in the phrases new book, new books, the meaning of the number is expressed not only by the endings of the noun, but also by the endings of the adjective that agrees with it. Here paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another.

And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning, the only formal means of detecting this meaning is the grammatical syntagmatics (compatibility) of the word. For example, if the noun does not have outwardly different endings, i.e., is “indeclinable” (coat, thermal power plant, etc.), the grammatical meaning of the number can only be expressed “outside” the noun itself, in the consistent forms of the adjective: new / new coats , powerful/powerful CHP. These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical doctrine of a word that actually functions in speech, must take into account all means of expressing the grammatical meanings of a word, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic.

In addition to the main - paradigmatic and syntagmatic - formal means of expressing grammatical meanings that have just been noted, some words often have additional formal indicators that accompany the main means of expressing grammatical meanings:

1) alternations (or alternations) of phonemes in the stem: these can be alternations of consonants at the end of the stem (run - run, love - love) or alternations of vowels in the middle of the stem (trample - trample), including the alternation of a "fluent vowel" with zero ( sleep - sleep, lion - lion, tracks - tracks)",

2) a change in the composition of suffixes at the end of the stem: their buildup, truncation or alternation: brother - brothers (brother-j-a), peasant - peasants, give - give, dance - dance (dance-yj-y);

3) suppletivism (replacement of root morphemes in different word forms of the same word): I go - walked, a person - people, a child - children, bad - worse, small - less, I - me, we - us, you - you, etc. .;

4) change in the place of stress: tree - trees, was - were.

Grammar is a specific grammatical structure of the language, which includes the means of word formation, etc.

Grammar concepts:

grammatical meaning

Grammatical form

Grammatical ways (means)

Almost any word contains two meanings: lexical and grammatical. If the lexical meaning of a word is individual, concrete, then the grammatical meaning is non-individual, it is abstract, it will be common to a number of words of the same type, it always has formal means of its expression. The grammatical meaning is always formally expressed in a certain way. It is related to the grammatical forms through which it is expressed.

Means (methods) of the language:

Grammatical means are functionally equivalent to affixes:

Internal inflection - significant alternations of consonants, vowels inside the root (external inflection - endings) - for example, man - men, foot - feet, read - read, sleep - sleep, there are languages ​​in which all meanings are transmitted only by internal inflection, for example Arabic.

Suppletivism is a means when the grammatical meaning is transmitted using another root (child - children, person - people, take - take, I - we, I - you - he, good - the best)

Reduplication - repetition of either the whole, or the root, or part of the word: kuni (country) - guniguni (country) (Japanese), for adjectives: kind - kind.

Addition is a word-building method, a way of forming new words: a steam locomotive, a water carrier. There are languages ​​in which all word formation is reduced to addition.

Functional words - the grammatical meaning is conveyed not inside the word, but outside it: articles (number), prepositions (subordinating relations between words in a sentence), postpositions (in those languages ​​where there are no prefixes): for God's sake, conjunctions (composing relations, between words), particles (mood), auxiliary verbs (time).

Word order - can be used as a word-formation tool, and grammatical meaning, for example, mother loves her daughter.

Stress is a means that can be used as word-building (lock - castle) and inflectional (hands - hands)

The most common way is affixation (expression of grammatical meaning using affixes), for example, in verbs: aspect, tense, person, number; for nouns: gender, case.

Depending on the expressed meaning, postfixes are divided into suffixes (having a derivational, that is, derivational meaning) and inflections (having a relational meaning, that is, indicating a connection with other members of the sentence, meaning). The suffix conveys both lexical and (more often) grammatical meaning; can translate a word from one part of speech to another (transposing function).

Inflections are word-changing affixes. The traditional name for inflections of the Russian language is endings, since they are mainly located at the very end of words (external inflection), foot-feet is internal inflection.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself. Or otherwise - internal inflection. But not all root changes are internal inflections. To do this, one must be able to distinguish different types alternations of sounds.

Phonetic - when the change in sound is due to position (water-water, each other, forehead-frontal);

Non-phonetic - the change in sound does not depend on the position, but different phonemes alternate (friend-friend-friendly);

Morphological alternation is obligatory according to tradition (stump-stump, forehead-forehead). All these alternations are a phenomenon of internal. inflections; about Grammat. the methods are the same for all languages, but languages ​​can use all and only some of them.

1. Affixation. Affixes are morphemes with grammatical meaning. They do not serve outside words, they accompany the root, serving for word formation and inflection. P r e f i k s s - before the root, post f and k s - after the root. Postfixes are divided into suffixes and inflections, division according to the principle of grammatical meaning; suffixes are word-forming affixes, and inflections are inflectional. In many languages, zero affixes play an important role - the absence of an affix in one form of the paradigm and the presence in another (horn-horn-horn).

2. Agglutination (gluing) (knit - untie - denouement) and f u s and i - (alloy) (wealth, carver), i.e. during fusion, affixes, both externally and internally, are closely soldered with roots, etc. with each other, and in the composition of these alloys, as it were, fade out.

3. Alternations and internal flexion.

Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself, or, in other words, by internal inflection. Alternations of sounds (i.e. mutual replacement in the same places, in the same morphemes) can be:

Phonetic - alternate variants of the same phoneme without changing the composition of phonemes in morphemes;

Non-phonetic - different phonemes alternate (friend-friend-friendly). Among the non-phonetic ones: morphological - alternation is obligatory according to tradition, but not for expressiveness (Stump-stump, bake-bake, simple-simplification); grammatical - such an alternation itself may be sufficient to form a word form (dry-dry, wild-game, avoid-run). This is internal inflection.

4. Repetitions - consist in the complete or partial repetition of the root, stem or the whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it. In some languages, to express plurals, as a means of amplifying a given message (No, no, a long time ago), onomatopoeic repetitions.

5. Method of addition - in one lexeme, the root is connected to the root, both full and truncated (God save, thank you, hide your nose in French - muffler), maybe through connect. vowel (surveyor, shipping company) and without connect. vowel (collective farm, people's commissariat).

6. The way of service words - they release significant words from the expression of grammar:

Prepositions - express the subordinating relationship between the members of the sentence (I'm going to the subway, I'm looking at you);

Articles are not in all languages; a sign of a name, distinction between certainty and indefiniteness, distinction of gender (in German), distinction of number (in French).

7. Way of stress: in Russian - different words from different stress: pour out, pour out; to distinguish between short adjectives and adverbs: narrow-narrow.

Found on the material of the Indo-European languages.

Grammatical means - these are any materially expressed linguistic means that accompany the establishment of grammatical relations in the language system. Grammatical means go back either to the units of grammar (signs), or to the figures of the expression plane or the content plane. The minimal (grammatical) sign units are morphemes.

Morpheme - this is the minimum grammatical unit that serves as an element of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations in the language system. In principle, any part of a word that can be part of a particular paradigm or syntagma can become a morpheme. There is another definition of a morpheme as the minimum meaningful part of a word. Such a definition is put forward in accordance with the lexico-grammatical principle of linguistic research. It practically excludes from the composition of morphemes parts of the word that are repeated in other words, that is, they form a paradigm, but do not have an explicit meaning. For example, indicators of classes of verbs: resh-And -t - resh-A -th. This approach greatly impoverishes the description of the grammatical possibilities of the language.

In principle, the first and second approaches to the description of grammar differ as follows: in the first approach, the main grammatical meanings of grammatical forms and models are first determined (most often, intuitively), and then ideas about grammatical forms are formed on this basis; in the second approach, grammatical forms and models are determined on the basis of grammatical relations, and only after the construction of the main grammatical models is a correlation established between them and the meanings of lexical paradigms that form grammatical categories (i.e., classes of lexical paradigms serving one or another grammatical category).

Grammatical means, which serve to differentiate grammatical categories in a language, go back either to phonetic means, or to morphological, derivational and syntactic, or to semantic means.

To grammatical means phonological(phonetic) origin include non-positional phoneme alternation (morphonemes ), or internal flexion . Morphonological alternations are quite common and frequent in Indo-European languages. For example, in Russian, morphonemes appear in word-formation relations ( fly - fly, leg - leg, hand - pen, love - love, wear - burden, drive - driving, board - plank, drain - drain, friend - friendly, flea - flea, quiet - silence), or in inflectional forms of verbs ( to carry - I drive, to write - I write, to walk - I go, to save - I save, to plow - to plow, to dip - to piss, to cope - I will manage. Examples from English: child - children, tooth - teeth, mouse - mice, woman - women, foot - feet, speak - spoke - spoken, see - saw - seen, take - took - taken, be - was (were) - been.

The next grammatical means of phonological origin is stress , For example: hands - arms, legs - legs. IN English language: export – export.

In some cases, the grammatical means of phonological origin is intonation . With the help of intonation, we can distinguish between sentences according to the purpose of the statement: It's a good weather today. It's a good weather today? It's a good weather today! The tired mother needed rest. Tired, the mother needed rest. With the help of intonation, the types of complex sentences change: The forest is cut, chips fly ...(intonation of enumeration in a compound sentence). They cut the forest - the chips fly(contrast intonation in a non-union sentence of a temporary type).

The next group of grammatical means has morphological, derivational or syntactic origin. Morphological and derivational forms are formed with the help of morphemes.

The term "morpheme" itself was introduced into linguistics by I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. He also created the first classification of morphemes, focusing mainly on the Indo-European languages. The central component of words in all languages the globe serves as a root. Root - this is the central morpheme of the word, constituting the epidigm (the main, constant part) of word-formation relations. The root is an independent morpheme in the composition of the word. It can match the word itself. The remaining morphemes in the composition of the word are auxiliary and are called affixes . Affixes that appear before the root in a word are called prefixes , or attachments. The affixes that are in the word after the root, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay called postfixes . This manual retains exactly this meaning of the term "postfix".

Postfixes are divided into suffixes, inflections And post-inflections.

Suffix is a service morpheme, which is the main indicator of the word-formation paradigm. For example, the suffix -tel serves as an indicator of the grammatical word-formation paradigm, which includes words that have the meaning of an agent or instrument ( writer, heater).

Flexion , or inflectional ending, is a service morpheme that forms paradigms that are part of the inflectional epidigm. For example, inflection Ø (zero inflection) in the word house, flexion -A in a word hand, -O in a word window And -s in a word tables form a paradigm of the nominative case of a Russian noun, and inflections Ø ( house), -A (Houses), -y (home), -ohm (home), -e (in the house) form a case epidigm of masculine nouns singular with a solid base.

Postflexion , which in the linguistic literature is not quite correctly called a postfix, is a service morpheme that comes after inflection and is an indicator of either a new word-formation paradigm or a categorical grammatical form. An example is post-inflection -sya In russian language: wear - rush, torture - try(word formation), wash - wash, shave - shave(various categorical grammatical forms).

Interfix - a service morpheme, which is a means of connecting two or more roots in one compound word. For example, interfixes -O- And -e-: plumbing, fire extinguisher, dustproof, employer, helicopter, airplane, steamship, oil refinery, stud farm, shrew.

Confix − is a combination of a prefix and a suffix that forms a new word, for example, district. This word was formed by the prefix behind- and suffix - j: no word exists * speech And * districts. Word windowsill formed by confix sub-nick because there are no words in the language * windowsill And * subwindow. Word direction formed by confix na- -enij-(e), missing words * right, *direction, and the word governing body not lexically related to the word direction.

Infix - this is a service morpheme (affix), which is inserted inside the root to form a new grammatical form. For example, in Indonesian the word sulat means "letter" sumulat- "write"

Transfix - this is a complex service distant morpheme, consisting of a number of sound means, which is dissectedly inserted between the sound components of the word. This phenomenon is observed in Arabic languages. For example, sound system ktb serves as a root morpheme denoting something related to the processes of learning and understanding: kataba- write,kutiba- written,maktab- school,kitab- book.

Word-building grammatical forms are formed with the help of prefixes, suffixes and post-inflections ( beat - kill, boil - boiler, blow - pout). Categorical grammatical forms can be formed using prefixes, sometimes suffixes and post-inflections ( write - write, walk - walk, scratch - itch). Inflectional forms are usually formed by inflections ( I write - you write, I sleep - I sleep, I carry - I carry).

The grammatical means of syntactic origin include word order And change of grammatical links . In Russian, with its inflectional structure, word order acts as a grammatical tool extremely rarely, for example: Red Rose (red- definition), Red rose (red- predicate) mother loves daughter (mother- loving subject daughter loves mother (daughter- loving subject). In English, word order acts as a grammatical tool much more often.

The grammatical means of lexical origin include repetitions (reduplication), addition of words And suppletivism . In Russian, repetitions of words act as a means of word formation. Wed: barely And barely, a little And a little, few And little by little. A similar role is played by repetitions in the Turkic languages, for example: zhylky-soap(horses and other cattle), expressions like ball-bar(rags), shirli-myrli, shurum-burum. In the languages ​​of the Austronesian family, reduplication is an expression plural: arang(Human), arang- arang(People), sudara(comrade), sudara- sudara(comrades).

Addition includes cases of combining different roots or their abbreviations into one word: hut-reading room, raincoat-tent, plant-combine, wall newspaper, steam locomotive, people's commissariat, show business.

In Indo-European languages, there are cases when a new word acts as a form of the original word. For example, man - people, child - children, good - better, bad - worse. The phenomenon of the formation of word forms with the help of other lexemes is called suppletivism.

Lexical means

Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning (good - evil, powerful - powerless).The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech, serves as a means of antithesis.: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.

Contextual (or contextual) antonyms -these are words that are not opposed in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text:Mind and heart - ice and fire -That's the main thing that distinguished this hero.

Hyperbole - figurative expression exaggerating any action, object, phenomenon. Used to enhance the artistic impression.: Snow fell from the sky in pounds.

Litotes - worst understatement: a man with a fingernail.Used to enhance the artistic impression.

Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) -thanks to their novelty, they allow creating certain artistic effects, expressing the author's view on a topic or problems: ...how can we make sure that our rights do not expanded at the expense of the rights of others?(A. Solzhenitsyn)

Use of literary imageryhelps the author to better explain any situation, phenomenon, other image:Grigory was, apparently, the brother of Ilyusha Oblomov.

Synonyms - These are words belonging to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning:Love is love, friend is friend.Used Synonyms allow you to more fully express the idea, use. To enhance the feature.

Contextual (or contextual) synonyms −words that are synonymous only in this text:Lomonosov - a genius - a beloved child of nature. (V. Belinsky)

Metaphor - a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature.

In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands what kind of similarity the semantic relationship between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on:There were, are, and, I hope, always will be more good people in the world than bad and evil ones, otherwise disharmony would come in the world,it would have skewed...tipped over and sunk.Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.

Metonymy - transfer of values ​​(renaming) according to the adjacency of phenomena. The most common cases of transfer:

A) from a person to his any external signs:Is lunch coming soon? asked the guest, turning toquilted vest;

b) from an institution to its inhabitants: Whole board recognized the superiority of D.I. Pisarev;

Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words that create a new concept or idea. This is a combination of logically incompatible concepts, sharply contradictory in meaning and mutually exclusive. This technique sets the reader to the perception of contradictory, complex phenomena, often - the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author's attitude to an object or phenomenon, or gives an ironic connotation:The sad fun continues...

personification -one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. When impersonating, the described object is externally used by a person:Trees leaning towards meoutstretched thin arms.Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object: Rain slapped bare feetalong the paths of the garden.

Evaluative vocabulary -direct author's assessment of events, phenomena, objects: Pushkin is a miracle.

Paraphrase(s) - use description instead own name or names; descriptive expression, turn of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition: The city on the Neva sheltered Gogol.

Proverbs and sayings,used by the author, make the speech figurative, apt, expressive.

Comparison - one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, to create whole artistic pictures, to give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by conjunctions:like, as if, as if, exactly, etc.but it serves for a figurative description of the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions. For example, comparison helps to give an accurate description of a color: Like the night, his eyes are black.

Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: snake alarm crept into our hearts.There are comparisons that are included in the sentence using words:similar, similar, reminiscent: ... butterflies are like flowers.

Phraseologisms -these are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, use. In order to show the author's attitude to events, to a person, etc.:people like my hero have divine spark. Phraseologisms have a stronger effect on the reader.

Quotes from other works they help the author to prove any thesis, the position of the article, show his passions and interests, make the speech more emotional, expressive: A.S. Pushkin, "like first love"will not forget not only"Russian heart" but also world culture.

Epithet - a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Anything can be an epithet. meaningful word, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition to another:talker magpie,fatal hours. eagerly peers; listens frozen;but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense:half-asleep, tender, loving eyes.

Gradation - stylistic figure, which consists in the consequent injection or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech:For the sake of your child, for the sake of the family, for the sake of the people, for the sake of humanity - take care of the world!Gradation is ascending (strengthening of the feature) and descending (weakening of the feature).

Antithesis - a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

Tautology - repetition (better, the author's words are the words of the author)

colloquial vocabularygives additional. Expressive-emotional. Coloring (put, deny, reduce) can give a playful, ironic, familiar attitude to the subject.

Historicism- words that have fallen out of use along with the concepts they denoted (chain mail, coachman)

Archaisms - words that are in modern. Rus. The language is replaced by other concepts. (mouth-mouth, cheeks-cheeks)

In the works of the artist Lit. They help to recreate the color of the era, are a means of speech characteristics, or can be used as a means of comic

Loans. Words -to create humor, a nominative function, give national. Coloring brings the reader closer to the language of the country whose life is described.

. Grammar means.

exclamation particles -a way of expressing the emotional mood of the author, a method of creating an emotional pathos of the text: ABOUT, how beautiful you are, my land! And how good are your fields!

exclamatory sentencesexpress the emotional attitude of the author to the described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration):Disgraceful attitude! How can you save happiness!Exclamatory sentences also express a call to action:Let's save our soul as a shrine!

Inversion - reverse word order in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the adverb of the mode of action is before the verb:The youth of today quickly realized the falsity of this truth.And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech:Beloved homeland, my native land, should we take care of you!

Polyunion - a rhetorical figure, consisting in the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the enumerated concepts, the role of each is emphasized.: And the thunder did not strike, and the sky did not fall to the ground, And the rivers did not overflow from such grief!

Parceling - the technique of dividing a phrase into parts or even into separate words. Its purpose is to give speech intonational expression by its abrupt pronunciation:The poet suddenly stood up. Turned pale.

Repeat - conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: Pushkin was sufferer, suffererin the full sense of the word.

Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations -a special means of creating the emotionality of speech, expressing the author's position.Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them? Who, in a moment of anger, did not demand from them a fatal book in order to write in it their useless complaint of oppression, rudeness and malfunction?

What summer, what summer? Yes, it's just magic!

Syntactic parallelism -the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea:Mother is an earthly miracle. Mother is a sacred word.

A combination of short simple and long complex or complicated sentences with a variety of turnovershelps to convey the pathos of the article, the emotional mood of the author.

“1855. The zenith of Delacroix's glory. Paris. Palace of Fine Arts ... in the central hall of the exposition - thirty-five paintings of the great romantic.

One-part, incomplete sentencesmake the author's speech more expressive, emotional, enhance the emotional pathos of the text:Gioconda. A human babble. Whisper. The rustle of dresses. Quiet steps ... Not a single stroke, - I hear the words. - No smears. How alive.

Anaphora, or monogamy - This is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. It is used to strengthen the expressed thought, image, phenomenon:How to describe the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings that overwhelm the soul at this moment?

Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.: I have been going to you all my life. I have believed all my life into you. I have loved all my life you.

water words are used to express confidence (of course), uncertainty (maybe), various feelings (fortunately), the source of the statement (according to words), the order of events (firstly), evaluation (to put it mildly), to attract attention (you know, understand, listen)

Appeals- is used to name the person to whom the speech is being addressed, to attract the attention of the interlocutor, and also to express the attitude of the speaker to the interlocutor (Dear and dear mother! - common appeal e)

Homogeneous members of the proposal -their use helps to characterize the object (by color, shape, quality ...), focus on some point

Sentence words - Yes! But how!Certainly! Used in colloquial speech, express strong feelings of motivation.

Isolation - used to highlight or clarify part of the statement. (At the fence, at the gate itself ...)

Formal grammatical means are of two types: paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The paradigm of a word is the totality of all grammatical varieties (word forms) of a given word. The ability of a word to form a paradigm is called inflection. Some words have no inflection: they always appear in the same form (for example, service words y, but, only). Such words have zero paradigm. But for most words in the Russian language, the paradigm is not zero. Thus, the morphological inflectional paradigm of the word school is formed by word forms: school, school, school, school, school, (o) school; schools, schools, schools, schools, schools, (o) schools.

There are two types of word forms: synthetic (simple) and analytical (compound). Synthetic word forms consist of the basis of the word and inflectional affixes - endings (inflection) and formative suffixes (see section "Morfemics"): house-∅ (zero ending), school-a, chita-l-i (formative suffix -l and ending -i), run-ysh-y, fast-eysh-y.

In the formation of analytical word forms, auxiliary words play the same role as inflectional affixes in the structure of synthetic word forms. For example, by adding the future tense forms of the auxiliary verb to be to the infinitive of imperfective verbs (read, run, etc.), an analytical form of the future tense is formed: I will read, I will run. Sometimes in the paradigm of a word there are both synthetic and analytical word forms: the strongest and the strongest, warmer and warmer. In the paradigms of nouns, numerals and pronouns - only synthetic word forms; adjectives, verbs, adverbs and impersonal predicative words are characterized by both synthetic and analytical word forms.

For morphology, inflection has always been the main object of study, because inflectional means - endings and formative suffixes as part of synthetic word forms, auxiliary words as part of analytical word forms - are effective means of expressing grammatical meanings. So, thanks to the opposition of endings in the word forms student - students, journal - journals, the meanings of the singular ~ plural are expressed; in contrasting word forms I decided - I decide - I will decide, temporary meanings are expressed. Endings, formative suffixes and auxiliary words are paradigmatic means of expressing the grammatical meaning of a word (since they participate in the formation of the inflectional paradigm of a word). In addition to the main paradigmatic means, there are additional, often accompanying these basic means of expressing grammatical meaning: 1) alternation (alternation) of phonemes in the stem: run - run, sleep - sleep (fluent vowel); 2) increase, truncation or alternation of suffixes in the base: brother - brothers (brother-j-a), peasant - peasants, give - give, dance - dance; 3) suppletivism - alternation of roots: I go - I went, a person - people; 4) stress: tree - trees, was - were.

The grammatical meanings of words are expressed not only paradigmatically, but also in the phrase, i.e. syntagmatically. For example, in the phrases new book, new books, the meaning of the number is expressed not only by the endings of the noun, but also by the endings of the adjective that agrees with this noun. Here paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement one another. And in cases where there are no paradigmatic means of expressing grammatical meaning, the only means is the grammatical syntagmatics (compatibility) of the word. For example, if the noun does not have outwardly different endings, i.e., is "indeclinable" (coat, thermal power station, etc.), the grammatical meaning of the number can only be expressed "outside" the noun itself, in the consistent forms of the adjective: new / new coats , powerful/powerful CHP. These examples show that morphology, as a grammatical doctrine of a word, must also take into account all means of expressing grammatical meanings, both paradigmatic and syntagmatic. Sometimes the word order in a sentence should also be taken into account; cf. different case meanings for the words mother, daughter in sentences Mother loves daughter; Daughter loves mother.

Bibliography

For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://rusjaz.da.ru/