Sewerage and drainpipes portal / Perforated trays / The form of government in France is the law. France form of government and state structure Form of state structure of France at present

The form of government in France is the law. France form of government and state structure Form of state structure of France at present

20.01.2021

Since the fall of the Bastille in 1789, 16 constitutions have been adopted in the country. The current constitution of 1958 (the 17th constitution since the Declaration of 1789) formalized the creation of the Fifth Republic in France.

The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, developed under the leadership of General Charles de Gaulle, was approved in a referendum held on September 28, 1958 in France itself and in its overseas departments, and entered into force on October 4, 1958. The fundamental law of France consists of three documents: the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, adopted during the Great French Revolution; the preamble to the 1946 constitution, adopted during the rise of the democratic movement after World War II; the 1958 constitution, which contains references to a number of international acts in which France participates (including the 1992 Treaty on the European Union), in connection with which some French jurists include them in the “constitutional block”.

The 1958 French Constitution is small in volume. Along with a short preamble, it contains 93 articles, combined into 15 sections (sections 13 "On the community" and 17 "Transitional ordinances" canceled in 1995).

The 1958 Constitution does not contain provisions on the socio-economic structure of society; it contains almost no provisions on the political system (except for the article on parties) and on the legal status of the individual. Certain provisions of a socio-economic nature are contained in the Declaration of 1789 (on property, on equal taxation, taking into account the state of citizens); some economic, political and social principles are named in the preamble to the 1946 constitution. The Declaration of 1789 and the preamble to the 1946 constitution also list a number of personal rights of citizens and socio-economic rights (freedom of speech, the presumption of innocence, equality before the law, the right to education, health care, etc.).

The 1958 Constitution mainly regulates the relationship between state bodies. It proclaims the principle of national sovereignty, which is exercised by the people through their representatives and in a referendum, as well as the creation of the French Community on the basis of free self-determination of the peoples of the colonies (the Community actually ceased to exist in the 1960s, and was legally liquidated by the constitutional reform in 1995) ... The 1958 Constitution confirmed the motto of the republic during the first revolution of the late 18th century: "Freedom, Equality, Brotherhood"; she proclaimed the principle of the republic: "Government of the people, according to the will of the people and for the people" (this formulation was first officially proclaimed in the United States in the 19th century); defined the basic conditions for the creation of political parties and their role; proclaimed that the republican form of government cannot be subject to revision. The constitution defines the relationship between domestic and international law: treaties and agreements ratified by France take precedence over domestic law, subject to reciprocity.

The main feature of the 1958 constitution is the concentration of political power in the hands of the executive. The concentration of power in the hands of the head of state and government is one of the manifestations of the constitutionally enshrined authoritarian tendency in the French political regime. The president is at the top of the hierarchy of government bodies. A referendum held on October 28, 1962, approved a constitutional amendment to elect the president by direct universal suffrage rather than by an electoral college. The president is elected for a 5-year term (at a national referendum on September 24, 2002, it was decided to reduce the presidential term of office from 7 to 5 years). The president appoints the prime minister and individual ministers and presides over cabinet meetings. With the consent of the Cabinet of Ministers, the President has the right to bypass parliament to put to a referendum any law or treaty that changes the nature of state institutions. The President has the power to dissolve the lower house of parliament - the National Assembly - and call new elections. The newly elected National Assembly cannot be dissolved within a year after the elections. Article 16 of the constitution allows the president to declare a state of emergency and take full power into his own hands. During this time, the National Assembly cannot be dissolved.

The French government is the Council of Ministers, according to Art. 20 of the Constitution, "determines and conducts the policy of the nation." The government consists of the prime minister, ministers in charge of the ministries, and secretaries of state in charge of the departments of individual ministries. The government is accountable to the National Assembly. If a resolution of censure is passed by an absolute majority of the National Assembly, the government must resign. The constitution specifically designates the powers of the prime minister: in his sphere of competence are national defense, the implementation of laws, rule-making activities. Senior government officials are appointed by the cabinet at the suggestion of the prime minister or president.

The legislature is a bicameral parliament, consisting of the National Assembly and the Senate. The main function of parliament is to pass laws, but this function is significantly limited by the constitution, which precisely defines the range of issues on which the parliament has the right to issue laws. Issues not included in this list are the responsibility of the government. The rights of parliament are also limited in the financial sphere: the Constitution sets a definite deadline for the adoption of financial bills by parliament. At the same time, the parliament has the right to control the activities of the government.

There are six standing committees in each house of parliament. These committees often function through subcommittees. The powers of the committees and subcommittees, which were very broad during the times of the Third and Fourth Republics, are now significantly limited.

The Constitution prescribes two annual parliamentary sessions. The first of them lasts from the beginning of October to the second half of December, the second - in April, while it cannot drag on for more than three months. At any time, at the request of the Prime Minister or at the request of the majority of the members of the National Assembly, a special session of parliament may be called.

Bills are passed by both chambers, then signed by the president and become laws (unless he places a temporary veto on them). When both houses fail to pass a bill, it goes back to a rehearing. If there is still no agreement, the Prime Minister may demand the convening of a meeting of committees composed of an equal number of members of both houses. The text of the bill, with amendments and additions made at this meeting, is again submitted by the government for approval by both chambers. If the meeting fails to reach agreement on the text or the amended and supplemented text is subsequently not approved by both chambers, the government may request a third reading in both chambers. If after this procedure an agreement is not reached, the Cabinet of Ministers has the right to appeal to the National Assembly with a request to finally decide the fate of the project.

The Constitutional Council is a special body overseeing the observance of the constitution. Section VII of the French Constitution is devoted to the Constitutional Council, as well as the law "On the Constitutional Council" adopted by the ordinance of the Chairman of the Council of Ministers on November 7, 1958.

All laws, prior to promulgation by the president, and the regulations of the chambers, prior to their adoption, must be submitted to the Constitutional Council, which gives an opinion on whether they are in conformity with the constitution. If the Constitutional Council decides that an act is contrary to the constitution, it has the right to cancel it. Also, the powers of the Constitutional Council include monitoring the presidential elections, holding referendums. The Constitutional Council consists of nine members, three of whom are appointed by the President of the Republic, three by the President of the National Assembly, and three by the President of the Senate (Article 56 of the Constitution).

A special feature of the Constitutional Council is that it includes all former presidents of the French Republic for life. The provisions on resignation, on replacement in the event of performing functions incompatible with membership are not applicable to life members, they do not take the oath when they take office.

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- Constitutional foundations, characteristics of the form of government
- Division and interaction of branches of government
- Features of the executive branch
- Heads of state (presidents) in 1959-2010
- Heads of government (prime ministers) in 1962-2010
- Features of the legislative branch
- Features of the judiciary
- Territorial and state structure
- Local government and self-government
- External influences on the formation and functioning of political institutions
- Conflicts and divisions
- Official ideology, ideological divisions and conflicts
- Religion and state, the role of religion in politics
- Features of the party system
- Representation of political parties in the National Assembly of the French Republic following the 2007 elections
- Representation of political parties in the National Assembly of the French Republic following the 2007 elections, taking into account sympathizing deputies
- Representation of political groups in the Senate of the French Republic after the renewal of the Senate in 2008
- The political role of the military / security forces
- NGOs, corporate components of the political system, interest groups and influence groups
- Position and role of the media
- France's position in the press freedom index in 2002-2008
- Gender Equality / Inequality
- National economy in the context of the world economy
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- Military spending 1990-2007
- Participation in international organizations, main foreign policy counterparties and partners, relations with Russia
- European Union
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- External and internal threats to state security
- France's position in the Corruption Perceptions Index 1995-2008
- Placement of the country's territory in a zone of increased risk of natural disasters
- Economic threats
- Human security threats

Fish of the Kolyma River
Reproduced in the original author's spelling of the 1966 edition ...

Les échanges politiques
La France exerce depuis longtemps une influence au niveau international, même si cette influence est, de nos jours, moins importante que dans le passé.

Il est à mentionner que la France a été le premier pays à posséder un réseau d'ambassadeurs et que le français a été la langue de la diplomatie, jusqu'à la Première Guerre mondiale.

Le premier principe qui guide la politique étrangère, sous la direction du général de Gaulle, dans les années soixante, est celui d’indépendance. Ainsi, la France assure sa défense de façon autonome. Le second principe officiel est de rechercher la solidarité avec les autres états "en vue d'avantager le progrès de la démocratie, de la paix et du développement."

La France est l'un des cinq membres permanents du Conseil de sécurité des Nations unies (ONU) depuis qu'il a été crée en 1945. La résidence de l'Unesco (Organization des Nations unies pour la science, la culture et l ' education) est à Paris. Des écrivains, des hommes politiques, des citoyens défendent en France les droits de l'homme depuis le siècle des Lumières (XVIIIe), et la Declaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen a été rédigée en 1789.

Plus récemment, en 1948, c'est à Paris que la Déclaration universelle des droits de l'homme a été adoptée.

France has had an international influence for a long time, even if today the influence is less significant than in the past.

It should also be noted that France was the first country to have its ambassadors and that French was, before the First World War, the language of diplomacy.

The first principle that governs foreign policy, under the leadership of General de Gaulle, in the sixties, is the principle of independence. Thus, France provides its defense autonomously.

The second official principle is the pursuit of solidarity with other countries "in order to promote the achievement of peace, democracy and development." France has been one of five permanent members of the United Nations (UN) Security Council since its creation in 1945.

France: history, government, science and culture

UNESCO (United Nations Organization for Science, Culture and Education) is located in Paris. Writers, politicians, citizens have been defending human rights in France since the Age of Enlightenment (18th century), and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen was drawn up in 1789.

Even earlier, in 1948, it was in Paris that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted.

La coopérations

Les organismes institutions du pays jouent un rôle dans la solidarité avec les pays les moins avancés (surtout en Afrique), en partenariat avec les organizations non gouvernementales (ONG). La France contribue financièrement et techniquement au développement de ces pays (coopération technique internationale) et mène une action humanitaire pour secourir les populations civiles en situation d'urgence.

Cooperation

The country's founding organizations play a special role in solidarity with the least advanced countries (mainly Africa), in partnership with non-governmental organizations.

France contributes financially and technically to the development of these countries (technical international cooperation) and implements a humanitarian action, which consists in helping civilians in an emergency.

The President was elected for 7 years by an absolute majority of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, united for this purpose into a single National Assembly. The President was given the right to initiate legislation, publish laws, and monitor their implementation. He could postpone the meeting of the chambers, demand a new discussion of the bill, already agreed by the chambers. With the consent of the Senate, he dissolved the Chamber of Deputies before the expiration of its legal term.

The President was the head of the armed forces. He was given the right to appoint to all higher civilian positions, the right to pardon. In other words, the Constitution endowed the President with all the attributes of a constitutional monarch, except for the hereditary nature of his power.

Legislative power was to be exercised by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.

The Senate was supposed to neutralize the Chamber of Deputies, which was staffed on the basis of direct elections and therefore depended on the opinion of the voters. The role and powers of the Senate were copied from the powers of the House of Peers during the restoration of the Bourbons, which, above all, meant the independence of the Senate from ordinary voters. The Senate was given equal rights with the Chamber of Deputies in the field of legislation.

Moreover, the Senate received a number of advantages: with his consent, the President could dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, while the Senate was not subject to dissolution; The Senate could be turned into the supreme judicial body for the trial of the President and ministers.

The Constitution fixed the joint responsibility of the ministers to the chambers for the general policy of the government.

Solve situations, guided by the norms of the "Civil Code of 1804", "Criminal Code of 1810" and the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1808.

a) French citizen Jacques Bussy, the owner of the land, hired the citizen Heinrich Forget to dig up a vegetable garden.

When dug up, Forget discovered a treasure of gold coins.

Who should own the treasure?

In accordance with Art. 716 of Book 3, the property of the treasure belongs to the one who finds the treasure on the plot belonging to him, if someone finds the treasure on another's plot, then the treasure is divided in half between the owner of the land and the one who found it.

b) French citizen Antoine Dubois in 1821

sold his plot of land for 25 thousand francs. A year later, he filed a lawsuit to terminate the sale and purchase agreement, because at one time he did not know about the real price of the site (105 thousand francs) and sold it too cheaply. The defendant, on the other hand, refused to admit the plaintiff's claims, noting that the transaction was concluded in compliance with all the necessary formalities.

What should be the court decision?

In accordance with Article 1674 of the Civil Code of 1804, Antoine Dubois can demand that the sale be declared null and void; the court must beat him, the transaction will be canceled.

c) French citizen Arne Lecomte, the father of four children, bequeathed a collection of antique icons, at a cost of one third of his inheritance, to his childhood friend Jacques Lautier.

Leconte's children went to court challenging the validity of this will.

State structure. France is a unitary state

What decision should the court make?

The court must declare the action of Arne Leconte invalid, t. according to the Civil Code of 1804. donation or will cannot exceed 1/4, if the death field of the person, he has three or more children.

d) Someone Simon Depardieu lived in his estate Lubye.

In 1825, when he was 28 years old, he married Marcel Guillem for 23 years. As an orphan, she lived with relatives in Paris and had a capital rent of 75 thousand francs. In March 1832 Depardieu died after a short illness. The medical report showed that death was due to arsenic poisoning.

The charge fell on his wife. Although there were no manifestations of hostility in the relationship between the spouses, the investigation found that Marceli Guillem repeatedly ordered arsenic from a pharmacist through third parties, allegedly for baiting rats and mice, and witnesses saw her several times add some kind of powder to her husband's food and drink ...

As a motive, the prosecution put forward the assumption that Marceli Guillaume, being young and accustomed to a fairly rich life in Paris, did not want to live in the countryside, and decided to get out of here at all costs.

During the investigation and trial, Marceli Guillem fell ill with a nervous system, as a result she could not move independently.

How can you qualify Marceli Guillem's actions? What court will the case be heard in?

What punishment can Marceli Guillem be sentenced to if convicted?

She should be sentenced to death, i.e.

because she wanted to take possession of the property and killed her husband. The case will be considered in the first court instance.

Run tests.

The National Assembly in France was proclaimed:

June 17, 1789;
July 24, 1791;
August 30, 1793;
September 9, 1796

The Declaration of Human and Civil Rights in France was proclaimed:

January 4, 1781;
March 11, 1783;
May 19, 1785;
August 26, 1789

In France, the civil code (Napoleon's code) was adopted in:

1800;
1802;
1804;
1806.

In France, the abolition of the death penalty for political crimes was established in:

1835;
1841;
1848;
1856

The most influential group of deputies of the French Convention of the II period of the revolution (1792-1793) was called:

mantanyars;
the Girondins;
constitutionalists;
jacobins.

According to the French constitution of 1795, the upper house of legislative power was called:

council of elders;
advice 500;
senate;
the House of Commons.

In accordance with the French Constitution of 1799, the Council of State consisted of 30-40 members appointed by:

a monk;
the Senate;
first consul;
minister of Finance.

In accordance with the French Constitution of 1848, the Council of State was appointed by the National Assembly for a term of:

2 years;
4 years;
6 years;
7 years.

According to the French Constitution of 1875, the President was elected by an absolute majority of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies for a term of:

4 years;
5 years;
7 years;
10 years.

State structure and political system of France

The authorities of the split into two parts of the state had previously signed their impotence.
France is ready to support the military intervention in Mali, which was actually split in two after the fall of Muammar Gaddafi's regime in neighboring Libya, writes “Vzglyad. RU".
“We will not allow events to develop in such a way as to create a terrorist haven in Mali for organized gangs claiming to be Al Qaeda.

In the medium term, our security is already a threat, ”French Defense Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian said yesterday.
The head of the defense department stressed that the activities of terrorists in North-West Africa so far have led to the situation in the region "becoming unacceptable."

“We cannot sit idly by,” the minister added.
Speaking about the possibility of military intervention to restore constitutional order in the north of Mali, the French Minister of Defense recalled that this scenario has actually already been launched by the interim authorities of the African republic.

“The process has already been initiated, as the Malian president asked his neighbors, united in the Economic Community of West African Countries (ECOWAS), to help regain control of the north,” explained Le Drian.
In addition, he added, plans for the invasion are already being worked out.

The territorial division of France includes territorial collectives, that is, self-governing units and other territorial entities in which there is no local self-government. The former include municipalities, departments and regions, while others include cantons and districts.

Municipality, which has about 36,000 people in the country, is the basis of the territorial organization of France.

Community status is enjoyed not only by rural settlements, but also by cities. The main body of self-government in the municipality is the council, elected by the community for a period of 6 years. Then he elects the mayor and his deputies by secret ballot - even for 6 years. The mayor is the executive body of local self-government and at the same time is the representative of state bodies in the municipality.

The jurisdiction of the municipalities includes the organization of water supply, trade, maintenance of local libraries and museums, roads, collection of local taxes, etc.

Cantons - are historical territorial units that do not have their own powers: administration and self-government. They are used as constituencies for elections for Sacred Divisions and Judicial Districts.

Departments - it is the basic unit of local distribution.

There are 96 divisions in France. In each department, the Council (General Council) is elected for 6 years. Updated 1/2 every 3 years.

The executive body is the chairman of the council elected by the council. But in the department there is not only the government, but also the state administration body - the prefect's government is appointed, the administrative supervision of the ministry is carried out for the activities of the authorities and the local ministry of ministry under the supervision.

district it unites several departments and does not have its own self-governing bodies. District management is carried out by a subproject appointed by the government in charge of social affairs, sanitation, landscaping, etc.

Region, which consists of 3-5 departments, as well as a department, has self-government bodies and state administrations.

Self-government is a regional council, directly elected for six years, by its president and worldwide elected bureaucrats, and by councils formed by the world. State administration in the region is carried out by the regional prefect, whose tasks are performed by the prefect of the largest department in the region.

There are 22 regions in France.

Many former French colonies retained the status of state relations along with the metropolis overseas territories and departments. These are sparsely populated islands that are very far from the metropolis. Overseas territories have the greatest degree of legal independence. There are four: New Caledonia, French Polynesia, Wallis and Futuna Islands, and the Arctic. They have their own legislative and executive bodies, which have a fairly broad jurisdiction.

However, some issues are subject to the laws for these territories, France. These are issues of protection, public order, judicial and monetary systems. In addition, the French government appoints in each territory a representative of the state, representing its interests, and monitors compliance with its legislation.

In July 1998, the constitution included the situation with the need for a referendum in New Caledonia to approve an agreement signed between France and the government of the two leading political forces in the territory (the Socialist Council of National Liberation and the Canadian Caledonian Union in the Republic). The agreement provides for the continuation of the existing relations between France and New Caledonia for the next 15-20 years, and at the end of this period - a referendum on the territory of independence.

The referendum took place on November 8, 1988. More than 70% of the votes were cast in support of this agreement.

four overseas department France (Guadeloupe, Guyana, Martinique and Reunion) are at the same time the status of regions and subdivisions, taking into account the presence of the corresponding powers and powers, their status is similar to that of the French regions and departments.

In addition to the listed territorial units, France has one more special status. It's all Corsica Is an island in the Mediterranean with political autonomy.

It has its own parliament with limited jurisdiction and elects a president who exercises exclusively executive power.

31. Elections abroad: concept, social goal, type.

Elections - the procedure for the formation of a state body or body is officially distributed by voting, provided that the number of candidates is submitted for each replacement term.

In other words, alternative choice is different from other methods of public authority, which involve assignment, inheritance, replacement of certain office positions, and many of them. Past elections are the poorest way to strengthen individuals. Their preservation and widespread use in democratic countries is due to the fact that they perform a number of important social functions that follow.

Elections guarantee the legitimacy of the authorities, i.e. his recognition by the population, his willingness to voluntarily fulfill his duties.

2. Elections show the interconnection of different forces and interests in society.

3. Choice is a means of choosing political leaders.

fourth

Elections are a mechanism for ensuring the sovereignty of the people and a democratic political regime.

World practice knows a lot viewelections. They can be classified for several reasons. Within the territory ofelections are divided into national (with which the highest state bodies are elected), regional (for example, elections of bodies of trade union subjects) and local elections (elections of local self-government bodies).

Untilelections are held regularly (held at the end of the term of office of the relevant body or official) and are extraordinary (they are held after the early termination of their competence).

Maximum number of excursionsElections are divided into one-sided, two-stage and multi-year elections.

The second and the next round of voting (re-voting) usually take place if the first vote did not produce results, i.e. the required number of elected persons was not elected. Typically, a second vote is required if more than half of the votes are required to elect a candidate, but none of them received such a majority due to the first round of voting.

Two or more candidates run in the second round with more popular votes than other candidates

According to the number of mandates,Elections are uniform (one person is elected from each district) and gender nominally (several people are elected from the district).

Depending on the on the role of the populationdistinguish between direct and indirect elections.

straightmeans direct voting of voters on candidates for elections, and when the question of their indirect elections finally decided not to elect voters and their elected persons (voters, deputies). Sometimes indirect choices in the literature are divided into indirect and multilevel. indirectAn election means that the population chooses a college whose sole purpose is to elect an official or government body.

Indirect elections, which elect, for example, the president of the United States: the population of each country votes only for voters from that country, then the voters elect the president and vice president. In multi-stage elections, some publicly elected government bodies directly elect other bodies or officials. For example, in China, lower-level representatives are elected by high-level representatives.

These are the electoral law, electoral process and electoral system.

France is a unitary state. The country is divided into 95 departments, departments into communes. The departments have self-governing bodies - general councils, elected by the population for a period of 6 years, with half of the composition renewal every 3 years. The central authority is represented by prefects appointed by the President. In communes, local power belongs to municipal councils, elected by the population for a 6-year term. The mayor is elected by the municipal councils.

In France, elements of a parliamentary and presidential republic are combined. The current Constitution of the French Republic entered into force on October 5, 1958. It approved the state system, which was called the Fifth Republic.

The central place in the French government system belongs to the President. He is elected through general and direct elections. In September 2000, at a referendum, a decision was made to reduce the constitutional term of presidency from 7 to 5 years. The powers of the President in all spheres of state life are extremely extensive. Some of them require ministerial countersignature, but the President exercises the most important rights personally. Article 5 of the Constitution stipulates for him the obligation to ensure "through his arbitration the normal functioning of state bodies, as well as the continuity of the state." The same article proclaims that the President is "the guarantor of national independence, territorial integrity, compliance with Community agreements and treaties." The President has broad legislative prerogatives. He is endowed with the right to legislative initiative. All laws passed by Parliament must be signed and promulgated by the President within 15 days. If he does not agree with the law or some of its provisions, then he may demand a second discussion of this act. Only after the second approval of the bill, the President is obliged to sign it. On the proposal of the Government or Parliament, the President may submit to a referendum a draft law "concerning the organization of state power, containing the approval of any agreement on the Community or with the aim of allowing the ratification of any treaty" (Article 11). If the bill is approved, the President will make it public within 15 days. Any bill can be submitted by the President to the Constitutional Council for verification of compliance with the Constitution.

As for the relations between the President and the Parliament, here, first of all, it is necessary to note such important of his powers as the right to dissolve the lower house. However, he can take this decision only after consultation with the Prime Minister and the chairmen of the chambers (Article 12). In two cases - within a year from the date of elections and during the period when the President exercises extraordinary powers - the dissolution of the National Assembly is impossible.

The prerogatives of the President in the sphere of management are also quite broad. He presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers, signs the decrees and resolutions discussed at them, appoints the Prime Minister and, at his proposal, other members of the Government, accepts the resignation of the Prime Minister and ministers, in accordance with Article 13 of the Constitution, "makes appointments to civil and military positions ". The President represents France in relations between states, concludes treaties, appoints ambassadors of France, receives foreign ambassadors. He is the commander in chief of the armed forces. Finally, the President is "the guarantor of an independent judiciary." He exercises the right to pardon. In addition to the extensive rights listed above, exercised by the President under normal conditions, Article 16 of the Constitution provides for him with extraordinary powers "in the event of an immediate threat to the Republic." The President makes the decision to introduce emergency powers after consulting the Prime Minister and informs the country's population about it. Throughout the entire period of the emergency powers, all power is concentrated in the hands of the President.

The legislative body of the Republic - Parliament - with the establishment of the Fifth Republic plays a relatively small role in the political life of the country. Parliament consists of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Senate. The National Assembly, which has 577 members, is elected for a term of 5 years. Under the 1985 Act, elections to the National Assembly are held on the basis of a proportional electoral system. The Senate includes representatives from departments, "overseas France" and French people living abroad. The Senate consists of 321 people, elected by indirect elections for a 9-year term. The Senate is renewed by 1/3 every 3 years. Parliament meets in regular sessions 2 times a year. Each chamber creates 6 standing commissions.

The main function of the Parliament - the adoption of laws - is significantly limited by the 1958 Constitution. First of all, Article 34 precisely defines the range of issues on which the Parliament has the right to issue laws. The solution of issues not included in this list is assigned to the competence of the Government. If the Parliament exceeds its powers, the Government has the right to demand from the Constitutional Council to make a decision on the delimitation of competences. The narrowing of the rights of the legislature is also evidenced by the fact that the deputies are limited in the implementation of legislative initiatives (Article 40), and government bills enjoy priority (Article 42). Parliamentary rights have also been curtailed in the financial sphere. Article 7 sets a deadline for the adoption of financial bills by Parliament. In case of violation of this period, the norms of the draft law are put into effect by issuing an appropriate act by the Government.

Parliament has the right to control the activities of the Government. Article 49 provides an opportunity to express no confidence in the Government by passing a resolution of censure. Chambers can form commissions to conduct parliamentary inquiries.

The French government - the Council of Ministers, according to Article 20 of the Constitution, "determines and conducts the policy of the nation." The Government includes the Prime Minister - the head of the Government, ministers who head ministries, and state secretaries who manage the divisions of individual ministries. The Constitution defines the functions of the Government in the most concise form. Since Article 37 enshrined the provision stating that all issues that are not included "in the area of \u200b\u200blegislation are resolved in an administrative manner", i.e. in the area that goes beyond the scope of the law, the act of the Government replaces the law. In addition, according to Article 38, the Government, with the permission of the Parliament, can adopt ordinances (acts having the force of law) in the field of operation of the law. Ordinances must be approved by a specially issued law "before the expiration of the period specified by the law that allowed their publication." The government is accountable to the National Assembly. If a resolution of censure is passed by an absolute majority of the National Assembly, it must resign.

The Constitution specifically specifies the powers of the Prime Minister. He is responsible for national defense and must enforce laws, carry out rule-making activities and appoint certain military and civilian positions. The Prime Minister has substantial rights in relation to Parliament: he has the right to initiate legislation, he can demand the convocation of Parliament, speak at any time in the House of Parliament, and finally demand, on the basis of Article 38, the transfer of legislative powers to the Government.

The Constitutional Council is a special body overseeing the observance of the Constitution. It consists of 9 people appointed for 9 years. 3 Council members are appointed by the President, 3 by the President of the Senate and 3 by the President of the National Assembly. All laws, prior to promulgation by the President and the regulations of the chambers, prior to their adoption, must be submitted to the Constitutional Council, which gives an opinion on whether they are in accordance with the Constitution. If the Constitutional Council decides that this or that act is contrary to the Constitution, then it has the right to cancel it. In addition to the function of constitutional oversight, the powers of the Constitutional Council include monitoring the course of the presidential elections, holding national referendums and considering disputes about the correctness of the election of parliamentary deputies. The decisions of the Constitutional Council are final and not subject to appeal. They are mandatory for all government agencies.

The Economic and Social Council is an advisory body to the Government. He gives opinions on bills related to his sphere of competence (mainly bills of an economic and social nature). The Council itself has the right to participate in the development of these projects. He, in addition, can express his opinion on the implementation of economic plans.

The members of the Council can speak to the delegates of the Parliament with a statement of their opinions on the main issues of economic and social policy. As the Economic and Social Council is an advisory body, its opinions are not binding.

Legal system

general characteristics

The modern legal system of France in its main features was formed during the period of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794. and in the first decades that followed, especially during the reign of Napoleon (1799-1814). The most important documents of this era, which predetermined the formation and further development of the legal system of France, are the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, a number of constitutional acts of the period of the Revolution and the codification of the most important branches of law - 5 codes, prepared under the supervision, and sometimes with the direct participation of Napoleon: Civil Code 1804, Civil Procedure Code 1806, Commercial Code 1807, Criminal Procedure Code 1808 and Criminal Code 1810.

Most of these acts still retain their legal force: the Declaration of Human and Citizen Rights is considered an integral part of the current Constitution of 1958, and of the 5 Napoleonic codes, 3 (Civil, Commercial and Criminal), although they have undergone significant changes, are recognized as valid, and only 2 of the Code were replaced by new ones: Criminal Procedure - in full and Civil Procedure - in part.

In the era of the "old regime", which preceded the bourgeois revolution, the most important role among the sources of law was played by those officially published since the 16th century. collections of legal customs, among which there were about 700 collections of local customs and about 60 collections of "general customs" operating on the territory of one or several provinces (the leading were the "Customs of Paris"). French legal customs, the records of which have been preserved since the 5th century, in turn were formed under the strong influence of Roman and canon law (mainly in the south of the country) or the customary law of the ancient Germanic tribes (in the north of the country), but over time they acquired an independent and very contradictory character, which led to attempts to unite legal customs on a scale, if not all of France, then its large historical regions.

Along with legal customs, a well-known role among sources of law in the XVII-XVIII centuries. began to play legislative acts issued by the royal power. Among them, the ordinances prepared by Colbert's government were of particular importance, including: on the civil procedure (1667), on the criminal procedure (1670), on trade (1673), and later on the royal ordinances of the government d "Agesseau: on donation contracts (1731 ), on wills (1735), on the settlement of family property disputes (1747), etc. Many provisions of these acts in a more or less revised form were included in the Civil, Commercial and other Napoleonic codes, and the Civil Procedure Code of 1806 was largely reproduction of the Colbert Ordinance of 1667. A well-known, albeit much lesser influence on codification was exerted by the norms of customary law, primarily those collected in the "Customs of Paris".

The compilers of the Napoleonic codes, relying on the centuries-old experience of French law, undertook such revolutionary transformations in the sphere of legal regulation that ensured the most free development of capitalist relations. At the same time, the forms of presentation of legal institutions they found, and above all when drawing up the Civil Code of 1804, turned out in most cases to be so adequate to the economy and social conditions of capitalism that they were reproduced in the legislation of many European countries and other continents or served as guidelines for the preparation of the corresponding codes.

In the modern system of sources of law, the central place is occupied by the Constitution of the French Republic of 1958, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, as well as the preamble to the Constitution of 1946, containing a detailed statement of the democratic rights and freedoms of citizens, together with the Declaration of 1789, proclaimed an integral part the current Constitution of the country. Among the legislative acts issued by the French Parliament, organic laws play a special role, complementing the most important constitutional provisions. Ordinary laws - acts of Parliament - regulate either branches of law or individual legal institutions. Ordinary laws also include codes that correspond to the traditional Napoleonic scheme of legislation: civil, criminal and others, changes in which are also made by issuing laws, unless the legislator prescribes otherwise.

The current Constitution of 1958 allows for ample opportunities for legal regulation through the issuance of regulatory acts by the executive branch - the Government, ministers and authorized administration bodies. Article 34 of the Constitution defines a list of areas of legal regulation that are in the exclusive competence of the legislative branch: the rights and freedoms of citizens, rules for the nationalization and denationalization of enterprises, the procedure for elections to Parliament and local self-government bodies, criminal liability and legal proceedings, as well as the definition of basic principles essential for national defense, finance, education, for civil and commercial law, for labor law and social security, etc.

All other legal issues outside the scope of legislation are covered by regulations at various levels. Among them, the most significant are ordinances - acts adopted by the Government with the permission of Parliament and at the conclusion of the State Council in areas usually regulated by law. Ordinances are subject to approval by Parliament within a certain period, after which they acquire the force of law. An important place in the system of regulations is occupied by government decrees signed by the President, some of which can be adopted only after the conclusion of the Constitutional Council, or decrees issued by the President without prior discussion in the Council of Ministers.

Along with the classical codes, the main content of which was determined in the Napoleonic era, in the XX century. the practice of issuing consolidated legislative acts on separate fairly large branches of legal regulation has spread. These regulations are also referred to as codes, although, unlike the "classic" ones, they can include norms issued not only in legislation, but also through regulations. Nowadays, there are several dozen such codes - on labor, road, agricultural, tax, customs, health code, etc. A well-known role as sources of law in France is also played by legal customs, primarily in the field of trade, and judicial practice, in particular the decisions of the Cassation court. In some cases, these decisions serve not only as a general guideline for judicial practice in certain categories of cases, but also as an indication in solving specific issues on which there are gaps in the legislation.

In the years since the fall of the Bastille in 1789, the country has adopted 16 constitutions. The current constitution of 1958 (the 17th constitution since the Declaration of 1789) formalized the creation of the Fifth Republic in France.

The French government is the Council of Ministers, according to Art. 20 of the Constitution, "determines and conducts the policy of the nation." The government consists of the prime minister, ministers in charge of the ministries, and secretaries of state in charge of the units of individual ministries. The government is accountable to the National Assembly. If a resolution of censure is passed by an absolute majority of the National Assembly, the government must resign. In the constitution, the powers of the prime minister are specifically designated: in his sphere of competence are national defense, the implementation of laws, rule-making activities. Senior government officials are appointed by the cabinet at the suggestion of the prime minister or president.

All laws, prior to promulgation by the president, and the regulations of the chambers, prior to their adoption, must be submitted to the Constitutional Council, which gives an opinion on whether they are in conformity with the constitution. If the Constitutional Council decides that an act is contrary to the constitution, it has the right to cancel it. Also, the powers of the Constitutional Council include monitoring the presidential elections, holding referenda. The Constitutional Council consists of nine members, three of whom are appointed by the President of the Republic, three by the President of the National Assembly, and three by the President of the Senate (Article 56 of the Constitution).

- Constitutional foundations, characteristics of the form of government

The official name is the French Republic (Republique Francaise, French Republic). Located in the western part of Europe. The area is 547 thousand km2, the population is 59.7 million people. (2002). The state language is French. The capital is Paris (9.6 million people). National holiday - Bastille Day 14 July. The monetary unit is the euro (since 2002, before that the French franc).

An integral part of France is overseas territories (French Polynesia, South and Atlantic territories, New Caledonia, Wallis and Futuna Islands), overseas departments (French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique) and territorial communities (Mayotte, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon). The total area is 4 thousand km2, the population is 1.8 million people.

Member of the UN (since 1945), the IMF and the World Bank (since 1947), NATO (1949-66), ECSC (since 1951), OECD (since 1961), EU (since 1957), OSS (since 1973), “big seven "(Since 1975), EBRD (since 1990), WTO (since 1995).

France landmarks

Geography of France

Located between 42 ° 20 'and 51 ° 5' north latitude; Longitude 4 ° 27 'West and 8 ° 47' East. In the north, the territory of France is washed by the straits of the North Sea Pas-de-Calais and the English Channel, in the west - by the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic Ocean, in the south - by the Mediterranean Sea. The length of the coastline is 3427 km. France borders on Andorra, Spain, Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Monaco, Italy, Switzerland.

All types of Western European landscape are found in France. The central, eastern and southern parts are distinguished by hilly or mountainous relief. The largest mountainous region in terms of area is the Central French massif (the highest point is the Puy de Sancy mountain, 1886 m) - basalt plateaus, alternating with volcanic cones, plateaus, rivers of the Loire basin. In the southeast, there are the high-mountainous Alps (Mont Blanc, 4807 m), from the west framed by medium-altitude ridges - the Prealps, which continue in the north with the Jura and Vosges mountains (Ballon de Gerbiller, 1423 m). The southwest is occupied by the Pyrenees (Vinmal, 3298 m).

North and west, almost 2/3 of the territory of France, low and high plains; the largest of these is the Paris Basin. In the southwest, parallel to the Bay of Biscay, the coastal plains of Aquitaine (Landa) stretch with a chain of dunes up to 100 m high. In the northwest, the plains turn into the Armorican Upland, washed by the straits of the North Sea. In the southwest and south, the Rhone and Languedoc lowlands merge. A small part of the Upper Rhine Lowland enters the territory of France.

The main rivers are the Loire (1000 km), the Rhone (812 km, including 522 km across France), the Seine (776 km) and the Garonne with its mouth called the Gironde (650 km). Part of the middle reaches of the Rhine runs to the east. The southern part of Lake Geneva is also located in France.

20% of France's territory is covered with forests, concentrated mainly in the western regions of Aquitaine, in the eastern part of the Paris Basin, in the Alps and Pyrenees. The upper border of the forests is 1600-1900 m above sea level in the Alps, 1800-2100 m in the Pyrenees. Above they turn into subalpine shrubs, and at an altitude of 2100-2300 m into alpine meadows. Shrub thickets and sparse forests (evergreen oak and pine species) are typical for the Mediterranean south. The characteristic landscape of the northwest is moorland and meadows.

The main representatives of the fauna of France are concentrated in forested areas, especially in the mountains. Mammals: wild forest cat, fox, badger, ermine, red deer, roe deer, fallow deer, wild boar, squirrel, hare; in the highlands - chamois, ibex, alpine marmot. Birds are numerous: hawks, kites, partridges, hazel grouses, snipe. Perch, pike, pike perch, trout are widespread among river fish; in the seas washing France - tuna, mackerel, sardine, cod, flounder.

A variety of minerals are found in the depths of France. The reserves of gas, iron ore, bauxite, uranium, potassium salts are allocated.

There are several climatic zones in France. The western part is dominated by a maritime climate; in the central and eastern regions - transitional from maritime to continental. Stable snow cover in winter in the Massif Central, the Alps and the Pyrenees. In the mountains, the climate changes significantly with altitude up to alpine. The south of the Rhone Lowland and the Mediterranean coast are dry subtropics.

Population of France

The population density is 107 people. per 1 km2, which is 2-3 times lower than in neighboring countries, although in some areas (the Paris Basin, Provence, Cote d'Azur) the density indicator is several times higher than the average. 75% of the population lives in cities (2002).

The movement of the population of France has historically been characterized by an alternation of long-term sharp ups and downs. The demographic growth for 1896-1946 was only 0.3 million people, and for 1946-2002 - 20 million people. The bulk of the increase took place in the 1950s-70s, in 1980-2002 - only 4.9 million people.

Natural population growth is 4%, with a birth rate of 13% and a death rate of 9%. The persistence of a relatively high level of natural increase is explained by long-term positive shifts in the regime of population reproduction and the expansion of immigration. An improvement in the reproduction regime is manifested in a rather high (for a European country) birth rate, despite a decrease in the number of marriages and an increase in divorces, an increase in the average age at marriage, and an increase in the participation of women in social production. There is a steady decline in mortality rates due to a decrease in child mortality (4 people per 1000 newborns) and an increase in average life expectancy. The latter is 79.05 years (including 75.17 years for men and 82.5 years for women), one of the first places in the world.

The ratio of men and women is 48.6: 51.4. The age structure is characterized by a pronounced tendency towards aging. The share of persons aged 0-14 years is 18.5%, 15-64 years old - 65.2%, 65 years and older - 16.3% (2002).

Due to the rapid rise in the importance of older generations, the growth of the economically active population lags behind the overall growth of the population. The number of employed is 26.6 million people. Only 45.8% of the economically active population is in the most able-bodied ages (20-60 years old), moreover, 40.6% of this group are people from 40 years old and older.

According to forecasts, if current demographic trends continue, the population of France will increase by only 5 million by 2050. At the same time, at least 1/3 of the population will be over 60 years old, and only 20% - under 20. The number of the economically active population will grow until 2006, and then will begin to decline (by 2020 by 750 thousand people compared to 2002).

An important component of the demographic situation in France is immigration, which provided for the 2nd half. 20th century OK. 1/4 of population growth. In the 1980s - mid. 90s the annual influx of immigrants was up to 100 thousand people, from the middle. 1990s as a result of government restrictions, it decreased to 50 thousand people. In 2002, there were 3.3 million resident foreigners in France, i.e. residents who have not received citizenship rights. It is purchased annually by approx. 100 thousand people; official statistics classify their children and grandchildren as French. Taking into account such categories, at least 15 million immigrants from other countries now live in France - almost 25% of the population.

In 2002, 40.3% of immigrants were Europeans (mainly from Portugal, Spain and Italy), 43% were Africans (mainly from Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia). Immigrants, especially those from African countries, have low industrial skills; the possibility of their employment in the current stage of scientific and technological revolution is small, and adaptation to the norms of life of the new homeland is difficult due to deep intercultural differences. The socio-economic problems (unemployment, crime) arising in this connection are manifested in political life by the accelerated growth of the influence of extreme right-wing parties.

France is characterized by a high level of educational attainment of the population. In 2002, the education system covered 14 million 390 thousand pupils and students, St. 1 million teachers, professors. 6.6% of residents have higher education, 15.1% have specialized secondary education. In 2002, 79% of lyceum graduates became bachelors. In terms of the total amount of spending on education and their share in GDP, France is in one of the first places in the world.

The overwhelming majority of the population is French. Several small ethnic minorities have sprung up historically in border areas, many of which were formerly foreign. Now minorities do not exceed 6.5% of the country's inhabitants. The largest are the Alsatians, as well as the Bretons, Flemings, Corsicans, Basques and Catalans. Their cultural characteristics, traditions, languages \u200b\u200bare considered in France as important elements of the common cultural heritage and are carefully preserved.

By religion, the overwhelming majority of the French are Catholics (83-88%). The second largest denomination is Muslims, far ahead of Protestants and Jews (5-10, 2 and 1% of the population, respectively).

History of France

The territory of France has been inhabited by people since ancient times. The first known people who settled on it were the Celts (from the 6th-5th centuries BC). Their Roman name - Gauls - gave a name to the country (the old name of France is Gaul). All R. 1 c. BC. Gaul, conquered by Rome, became his province. For 500 years, the development of Gaul went under the sign of Roman culture - general, political, legal, economic. In the 2-4 centuries. AD in Gaul Christianity spread.

In the end. 5 c. Gaul, conquered by the Germanic tribes of the Franks, became known as the Frankish kingdom. The leader of the Franks was a talented military leader, intelligent and calculating politician Clovis from the Merovingian dynasty. He basically preserved Roman laws and established social relations, the first of the Germanic leaders in the former Roman Empire to enter into an alliance with the Roman Catholic Church. The mixing of the Franks with the Halo-Roman population and the fusion of their cultures created a kind of synthesis - the basis for the formation of the future French nation.

Since the death of Clovis at the beginning. 6 c. The Frankish kingdom underwent continuous partitions and reunions, acted as the scene of countless wars of various branches of the Merovingians. K ser. 8 c. they have lost power. Charlemagne, who gave the name to the new Carolingian dynasty, founded a huge empire consisting of almost all of modern France, part of Germany and, as tributaries, Northern and Central Italy and the Western Slavs. After his death and the partition of the empire (843), the West Frankish kingdom emerged as an independent state. This year is considered to be the starting point of French history.

To the end. 10 c. the Carolingian dynasty was interrupted; Hugo Capet was elected king of the Franks. The Capetian (their various branches) originating from it reigned until the Great French Revolution (1789). In the 10th century. their kingdom became France

France of the era of the first Capetian, formally unified, was actually divided into a number of independent feudal possessions. The desire of the kings to centralize ensured the gradual overcoming of feudal fragmentation and the formation of a single nation. The hereditary domain of kings (domain) expanded through dynastic marriages and conquests. Endless wars and the needs of the growing state apparatus required more and more financial resources. To the end. 13th century the taxation of the clergy provoked a sharp protest from Pope Boniface. Trying to enlist the support of the population in the fight against the pope, King Philip IV the Handsome (1285-1303) convened in 1302 the States General - the representation of all 3 estates. So France became an estate monarchy.

By the beginning. 14th century France was the most powerful state in Western Europe. But its further development was slowed down by the Hundred Years War with England (1337-1453), which took place entirely on French territory. By 1415 the British had captured almost all of France and threatened its existence as a sovereign state. However, under the leadership of Jeanne d'Arc, French troops achieved a turning point in hostilities, which ultimately led to the victory of the French and the expulsion of the British.

To the end. 15th century the completion of centralization led to the autonomy of the royal financial apparatus from estate representation and the actual termination of the activities of the States General. The transformation of the estate monarchy into an absolute one began.

In the end. 15 - ser. 16th century France, trying to achieve hegemony in Europe and annex Northern Italy, fought the Italian Wars (1494-1559) with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Without bringing any political results, they completely depleted France's financial resources, which led to a sharp deterioration in the country's economic situation. The growth of social protest was closely intertwined with the spread of reform ideas. The split of the population into Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) resulted in long-term Religious Wars (1562-91), culminating in the massacre of the Huguenots in Paris (St. Bartholomew's Night, 1572). In 1591, Henry IV, a representative of the younger branch of the Capetian, Henry of Bourbon, a Huguenot leader who converted to Catholicism, was proclaimed king of France under the name of Henry IV. The Edict of Nantes issued by him (1598), equalizing the rights of Catholics and Huguenots, put an end to confrontation on religious grounds.

17th century was the time of strengthening of French absolutism. In the first third of it, Cardinal Richelieu, who actually ruled the country under Louis XIII, basically eradicated the noble opposition; its last manifestation was the Fronda - a mass movement led by the princes of the blood (1648-53), after the defeat of which the large nobility lost their political significance. Absolutism reached its peak during the independent reign of Louis XIV (1661-1715). Under him, nobility was not allowed to govern the country; it was ruled by the "sun king" himself, relying on the secretaries of state and the general controller of finance (this post was held for 20 years by J.-B. Colbert, an outstanding financier and mercantilist, who did a lot for the development of French industry and trade).

In the 17th century. France waged wars in Europe aimed either at eliminating the domination of other states (Thirty Years' War), or at ensuring its own hegemony (with Spain in 1659, Dutch wars in 1672-78 and 1688-97). All territorial gains gained during the Dutch Wars were lost in the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14).

From the 2nd floor. 18th century obsolete absolutism experienced an acute spiritual and economic crisis. In the spiritual sphere, its expression was the emergence of a galaxy of philosophers and writers who re-interpreted the acute problems of social life (the Age of Enlightenment). In the economy, persistent budget deficits, prolonged increases in taxes and prices, combined with prolonged crop failures, caused the impoverishment of the masses and hunger.

In 1789, amid a sharp aggravation of the socio-economic situation, under the pressure of the Third Estate (merchants and artisans), after a long break, the States General were convened. Deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves the National Assembly (June 17, 1789), and then the Constituent Assembly, which adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. The rebellious people took and destroyed the symbol of the "old regime", the royal prison of Bastille (July 14, 1789). In August 1792, the monarchy was overthrown (King Louis XVI was executed); in September - the Republic is proclaimed. The uprising of the extreme left of its supporters led to the establishment of a bloody Jacobin dictatorship (June 1793 - July 1794). After the coup on July 27-28, 1794, power passed to the more moderate Thermidorians, and in 1795 to the Directory. A new coup that led the Directory to its fall (November 1799) turned France into a Consulate: the government was concentrated in the hands of 3 consuls; the functions of the First Consul were assumed by Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804, Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor, France became an empire.

During the period of the Consulate and the Empire, there were continuous Napoleonic wars. Constant recruits for the army, tax increases, and the failed Continental blockade have depleted France's forces; the defeat of Napoleon's troops (the Great Army) in Russia and in Europe (1813-14) accelerated the collapse of the empire. In 1814 Napoleon abdicated the throne; the Bourbons returned to power. France became a monarchy (constitutional) again. Napoleon's attempt to regain the throne (1815) was unsuccessful. According to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), France was returned to the borders of 1790. But the main achievements of the revolution - the abolition of estate privileges and feudal duties, the transfer of land to peasants, legal reforms (Civil and other codes of Napoleon) - were not canceled.

In the 1st floor. 19th century France was rocked by revolutions. The July (1830) was caused by the attempts of the Bourbon (royalist) supporters to restore the "old regime" in its entirety. It cost the power of the main branch of the Bourbons, finally overthrown by the revolution of 1848. Napoleon's nephew Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte became the president of the newly proclaimed II Republic. After the coup d'etat of 1851 and the ensuing year of military dictatorship, Louis Napoleon was crowned emperor under the name of Napoleon III. France became an empire again.

The Second Empire (1852-70) became a period of rapid development of capitalism (mainly financial and speculative), the growth of the labor movement and wars of conquest (Crimean, Austro-Italian-French, Anglo-French-Chinese, Mexican, Indochina wars). The defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and the disadvantageous Peace of Frankfurt (1871) were accompanied by a failed attempt to overthrow the government (the Paris Commune).

In 1875 the Constitution of the III Republic was adopted. In the last quarter of the 19th century. power in France has stabilized. It was an era of extensive external expansion in Africa and southeast Asia and the formation of the French colonial empire. The question of the optimal form of government, not fully resolved by the nation, turned into a fierce struggle between the monarchist clericals and the republican anticlericals. The Dreyfus affair, which sharply exacerbated this conflict, brought France to the brink of civil war.

In the 20th century. France entered as a colonial empire, at the same time having an agrarian-industrial economy that lagged behind the leading industrial powers in industrial development. The rapid growth of the labor movement was expressed in the formation in 1905 of the Socialist Party (SFIO, French section of the Socialist International). In the same year, anti-clericals won a long-term dispute: a law was passed on the separation of church and state. In foreign policy, rapprochement with Great Britain and Russia marked the beginning of the Entente (1907).

On August 3, 1914, France entered the 1st World War, which it ended 4 years later, in November 1918, as a victorious power (along with Great Britain and the United States). The Treaty of Versailles of 1918 returned Alsace and Lorraine to France (which had gone to Prussia by the Treaty of Frankfurt). She also received part of the German colonies in Africa and large reparations.

In 1925, France signed the Locarno Treaties, which guaranteed Germany's western borders. At the same time, colonial wars were fought: in Morocco (1925-26) and in Syria (1925-27).

The war, significantly pushing the development of the previously lagging French industry, ensured the acceleration of economic development. Positive structural changes in the economy - the transformation of France into an industrial-agrarian power - were accompanied by the growth of the labor movement. The French Communist Party (PCF) was founded in 1920. The Great Depression began in France later than in other countries, and was less severe, but more prolonged. OK. 1/2 of the wage earners turned out to be partly employed, almost 400 thousand - unemployed. Under these conditions, the workers' movement became active. Under the leadership of the PCF, the Popular Front was created, which won the parliamentary elections of 1936 by a large margin. On June 7, 1936, trade unions and employers signed the Matignon Agreements, which provided for an increase in wages by 12%, 2-week paid holidays, the conclusion of collective agreements, the introduction of -hour working week. The Popular Front was in power until February 1937.

In 1938, French Prime Minister Daladier, together with N. Chamberlain, signed the Munich Agreement aimed at postponing the war in Europe. But on September 3, 1939, France, fulfilling its allied obligations in relation to Poland, declared war on Germany. "Strange war" (inactive stay in the trenches on the fortified Franco-German border - "Maginot Line") lasted for several months. In May 1940, German troops bypassed the "Maginot Line" from the north and on June 14, 1940 entered Paris; on June 16, 1940, Prime Minister P. Reino handed over power to Marshal A. Petain. According to the armistice concluded by Petain, Germany occupied approx. 2/3 of the French territory. Having moved to the city of Vichy, located in the unoccupied zone, the government pursued a policy of cooperation with the fascist powers. On November 11, 1942, German and Italian troops occupied the unoccupied part of France.

Since the beginning of the occupation, the Resistance movement has been operating in France, the largest organization of which was the National Front, created by the PCF. General Charles de Gaulle, who served as Deputy Minister of Defense before the war, spoke on the radio from London on June 18, 1940, calling on all French people to resist the fascists. De Gaulle, through great efforts, succeeded in creating in London the Free France movement (from July 1942 - Fighting France) and to ensure the annexation of military units and administrations of a number of French colonies in Africa. On June 3, 1943, while in Algeria, de Gaulle formed the French Committee for National Liberation (FKLO). On June 2, 1944, the FKNO, recognized by the USSR, Great Britain and the United States, was transformed into the Provisional Government of the French Republic.

With the landing of the allied forces in Normandy (June 6, 1944), the Resistance units launched an offensive throughout the country. During the Paris uprising (August 1944), the capital was liberated, and in September all of France.

After the liberation, the extremely difficult economic situation, combined with the high prestige of the communists and socialists, who did a lot to win, guaranteed them massive support from voters. The left was in power from 1945-47. In 1946, the Constitution of the IV Republic was adopted, which provided for the responsibility of the government to parliament (parliamentary republic). The Constitution proclaimed, along with civil liberties, socio-economic rights: to work, rest, health care, etc. Widespread nationalization was carried out. In May 1947, when the Communists left the government and were replaced by representatives of the Unification of the French People party created by de Gaulle, the government's course shifted to the right. In 1948, an agreement was signed on Franco-American cooperation (Marshall Plan).

In 1946-54 France waged a colonial war in Indochina, which ended in the recognition of the independence of the former colonies. From the beginning. 1950s the national liberation movement in North Africa intensified. Morocco and Tunisia were granted independence (1956). Since 1954, fighting has been going on in Algeria, where France could not succeed. The war in Algeria once again split the country, parties and parliament, causing continuous government leapfrog. The attempt of the F. Gaillard government to grant independence to Algeria provoked a rebellion of the Algerian French - supporters of its preservation as part of France, supported by the command of the French troops in Algeria. They demanded the creation of a government of national salvation headed by de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, the National Assembly granted de Gaulle the appropriate powers. By September 1958, his team had prepared a draft of a new Constitution, which provided for a radical change in the balance of power between the branches of government in favor of the executive branch. The project was put to a referendum on September 28, 1958; it was approved by 79.25% of the French who took part in the vote. So a new period began in the history of France - the V Republic. Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), one of the prominent political figures of the 20th century, was elected President of the country. The party he created, the RPR, which in 1958 was transformed into the Union for a New Republic (YNR), became the ruling party.

In 1959, France announced the recognition of the right of the Algerian people to self-determination. In 1962, the Evian Cessation of Hostilities Agreements were signed. This meant the final collapse of the French colonial empire, from which all the colonies in Africa left earlier (in 1960).

Under de Gaulle's leadership, France pursued an independent foreign policy. She came out of the military

organization NATO (1966), condemned the US intervention in Indochina (1966), took a pro-Arab position during the Arab-Israeli conflict (1967). After de Gaulle's visit to the USSR (1966), Franco-Soviet political rapprochement took shape.

In the economic sphere, the course was taken on the so-called. dirigism is a large-scale government intervention in reproduction. The state often tried to replace business and viewed it as a junior partner in economic activity. This policy, which provided industrialization from the end. 1950s, to the end. The 1960s turned out to be ineffective - France began to lag behind both in economic development and in social transformations. In May 1968, the country was shaken by the most acute socio-political crisis: violent student unrest and a general strike. The President dissolved the National Assembly and called early elections. They showed the strengthening of the positions of the YNR (since 1968 - the Union of Democrats for the Republic, YUDR), which conquered St. 70% of mandates. But de Gaulle's personal authority was shaken. In an effort to strengthen it, the president decided to hold a referendum on administrative-territorial reform and reform of the Senate (April 1969). However, the majority of the French (53.17%) were against the proposed reforms. On April 28, 1969, de Gaulle resigned.

In 1969, the JUDR candidate J. Pompidou was elected president of France, and in 1974, after his death, the leader of the center-right party National Federation of Independent Republicans, V. Giscard d'Estaing. During the years of their reign, the government was headed by Gaullists (including in 1974-76 - J. Chirac). From the end. 1960s a gradual departure from dirigisme began, a number of social reforms were carried out aimed at meeting the demands put forward during the crisis of 1968. In the field of foreign policy, France continued to pursue an independent line, which, however, was distinguished by less rigidity and greater realism. Relations with the United States have normalized. With the removal of the veto from Britain's accession to the EU (1971), France's efforts to expand European integration intensified. Soviet-French relations continued to develop; France remained focused on detente and strengthening security in Europe.

The first "oil shock" 1973-74 reversed the trend of accelerated economic development in France; the second (1981) - "the tendency of power": it passed from the right, in whose hands it had been since 1958, to the socialists. In the modern history of France, the modern period has come - a period of "coexistence", political and economic instability, strengthening of the position of business, gradual modernization of society.

State structure and political system of France

France is an indivisible, secular, democratic and social state with a republican form of government. Administratively, France is divided into 22 regions, 96 departments, 36,565 communes. The largest cities are Paris, Lyon (1.3 million), Lille (1.0 million), Nice (0.8 million), Toulouse (0.8 million), Bordeaux (0.7 million).

The Constitution is in force, adopted by referendum in 1958, with amendments in 1962 (on the election of the president), 1992, 1996, 2000 (in connection with the signing of the Maastricht, Amsterdam and Nice treaties, respectively) and 1993 (on the issue of immigration).

The form of government since 1958 is a semi-presidential republic: the Constitution clearly defines the principle of the priority of the president, who is not responsible to parliament, but is not the head of government either. Since 1995, the President of France is J. Chirac (re-elected in 2002), a representative of the center-right party "Union for the Unification of the People" (SON), the heir to the Gaullist parties.

In the French political system, the president is a key figure. The President is elected for a 5-year term on a majority basis by direct universal suffrage (all citizens have the right to vote upon reaching the age of 18).

The main function of the president is to monitor the observance of the Constitution, to fulfill the role of the national arbiter, ensuring the regular and proper activity of the executive branch and the continuity of the state. The President is the guarantor of national independence and territorial integrity, France's compliance with its international obligations, he is the supreme commander-in-chief, represents the country in the international arena, and appoints senior civil and military officials. Appoints the prime minister, together with him forms the cabinet and terminates the powers of the latter upon his resignation. The president presides over cabinet meetings and approves decisions.

The president is elected independently of parliament and has the right to dissolve it with the obligatory condition of announcing the date of early elections. The president is deprived of the right to initiate legislation, but he can issue decrees and edicts that have the force of laws, organize referendums on domestic and foreign policy. The President enjoys a suspensive veto over parliamentary decisions. Finally, the Constitution grants the president extraordinary powers in the event of a "serious and immediate threat" to the country's territorial integrity and disruption of the "normal operation of government bodies." In general, the presidential power in France is all-encompassing, it has no definite boundaries.

The prime minister is appointed by the president for an indefinite term from among the deputies of the party that won the majority in the elections. In 2002, this post was taken by J.-P. Raffarin. The prime minister is accountable to both the president and parliament. He directs the activities of the government and is responsible for it, ensures the implementation of laws, is responsible for the country's defense. If necessary, he conducts meetings of the Supreme National Defense Council instead of the president, and also, in exceptional cases, meetings of the Council of Ministers (if there is special authority from the president in a specific area). The Prime Minister, together with the President, participates in the development of the government's economic program, if they belong to different parties (otherwise it is the president's mission).

The Prime Minister enjoys the right to initiate legislation: he and cabinet members can issue by-laws on economic and social issues. Approximately 20% of bills considered by the parliament are developed by the government, and the overwhelming majority of them (4/5 or more) are adopted.

The French Parliament consists of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Senate. Members of the National Assembly are elected by majority vote by direct, universal, equal and secret ballot for a 5-year term. Since 1986, the number of deputies to the National Assembly has been 577 (previously 491). 1 deputy mandate per 100 thousand voters. Parties whose candidates have overcome the 5% threshold in all 96 departments enter parliament. Members of parliament do not have the right to hold office in the executive branch. A normal annual parliamentary session lasts at least 120 days. It is possible to convene an emergency session at the request of the Prime Minister or the majority of the members of the National Assembly to discuss issues of special state importance; its opening and closing is carried out by a special decree of the President of the country. In the 2002 parliamentary elections, the 12th Legislature of the National Assembly was elected with the following composition: SON 355 seats, French Socialist Party (FSP) 140, Union for the Defense of Democracy (FDD) 29, PCF 21, Radical Party 7, Greens 3, others 22 ...

Chairman of the National Assembly - R. Forney (SON). The chairman, representing the parliamentary majority, is elected for the term of the legislature. Its main task is to ensure the normal functioning of the lower chamber. 6 of his deputies are the heads of the leading parliamentary parties. The agenda of the parliamentary sessions is determined by the government, which thereby controls the current activities of the National Assembly.

The scope of legislative activity of the National Assembly is fixed in the Constitution and is limited to 12 areas (including ensuring civil rights and freedoms of citizens; basic issues of civil and criminal law; national defense; foreign policy; legal regulation of property relations; nationalization and privatization, taxation and monetary emission and, of course, budget approval). Consideration and approval of the budget is the main ability of parliament to control the activities of the government; moreover, the deputies are prohibited from making proposals leading to an increase in the expenditure side of the budget. Lawmaking is carried out within 6 standing committees (the number established by the Constitution). They include 60-120 deputies; they are invariably chaired by representatives of pro-government parties.

The National Assembly is vested with the right to seek the resignation of the government. The procedure is as follows: when a government program is rejected as a whole or a separate draft law, the government raises the question of confidence; in response, the lower house is empowered to pass a special censure resolution. With the support of her at least 50% of the deputies, the cabinet must resign. However, the President has the right, upon accepting the resignation of the Prime Minister, to immediately reappoint him to this post. Or, on the contrary, to remove the prime minister, despite the support of the majority of parliamentarians.

The upper house of parliament - the Senate (317 members) is elected by a two-stage vote and is renewed by a third every 3 years. The structure of the Senate is identical to that of the National Assembly. The Senate, unlike the lower house, cannot terminate the government; the Senate has the right of a suspensive veto in relation to laws passed by the National Assembly. The composition of the Senate as of May 2003: SON 83 mandates, FSP 68, Union of Centrists 37, Liberal Democrats 35, Association of Democrats for Socialism and Europe 16, PCF 16, other 66 mandates.

On the basis of the 1958 Constitution, a quasi-judicial body, the Constitutional Council, was created in France. It reviews acts issued by the legislative and executive branches of government for consistency with the Constitution. The Council has 9 members. The President of the country, the heads of the National Assembly and the Senate (3 members each) have the right to nominate them. The appointment is for a nine-year term and cannot be repeated. The President of the Council is appointed by the President of France from among the members of the Council.

Since 1982, local executive power has been elected (before that it was exercised by prefects appointed by the prime minister). At the departmental level, the elected bodies are general councils, at the regional level - regional councils.

A democratic and multi-party system has developed in France. Valid approx. 25 parties; 16 of them participated in the 2002 elections. However, only 3-4 parties have a real impact on political life. These are, first of all, the center-right Association in Support of the Republic (OPR), which in 2002 was transformed into the SON, and the center-left - FSP. In the end. 1980s the far-right National Front (NF) entered the ranks of the main parties. In the 1990s. there was a strengthening of tripartism, associated mainly with the growth of the electoral success of the NF against the background of the stabilization of the right center and the weakening of the socialists.

The ODA, which emerged in 1976 as the successor to the YUDR, in foreign policy continued the Gaullist tradition of the "special path" of France, a great power and international mediator. In the 1990s. with the complication of relations between industrial and developing countries, with the liquidation of the Soviet bloc, the need for French mediation has sharply decreased; The rudiments of Gaullism remained in the form of France's "special approach" to practically all problems of world politics and European construction. In the economic sphere, the ODA, unlike the center-right parties of other industrialized countries, has not moved to neoliberalism. The position of the ODA on major economic issues (the role of the state in the economy, attitudes towards business, the fight against unemployment) before the presidential and parliamentary elections in 2002 resembled the views of European Social Democrats. From the beginning. 1980s in the presidential and parliamentary elections, the ODA consistently gained 20-22% of the vote. In the first round of the 2002 presidential elections, the candidate from the OPR J. Chirac received 19.7%, overtaking the leader of the NF J.-M. Le Pen by only 2%.

In the face of the threat of victory, the NF OPR set the task of rallying the center-right forces. The movement Unification in support of the president created around it became an important factor in the victory of the center-right in the elections (in the second round, Chirac received 81.96%). Later, the movement was transformed into the SON, the leader of which was the well-known OPR figure Alain Juppe. The economic program of the SON, which still does not openly proclaim the principles of neoliberalism, provides for a decrease in the functions of the state and an increase in business support. In the political sphere, the SON aims to preserve and maintain the role of a great power, the leader of European politics (this was manifested in the position of France during the 2003 war in Iraq).

The second main party in France, the FSP, formed in 1971 on the basis of the SFIO, sees its task in the gradual transformation of society towards socialism while maintaining a market economy. In the 2002 presidential elections, the FSP was defeated; its candidate, Prime Minister L. Jospin, with only 16.2% of the vote, did not qualify for the second round. The defeat of 2002 continued the failures of the socialists, which began in the middle. 1980s and caused by their sharp shift to the right. In 1972, the FSP, which was in deep opposition, put forward the slogan "break with capitalism" through large-scale nationalization, introduction of directive planning, "fair distribution" of income through radical reform of taxation, etc. With this program, the FSP and its leader F. Mitterrand won a landslide victory in the presidential and parliamentary elections in 1981. However, a significant deterioration in the economic situation caused by the implementation of measures to "break with capitalism" forced the FSP to turn to practice, and then to theories from the arsenal of the right ... In the next program of the socialists (1991), society was no longer offered a "non-capitalist path of development", but just another model of economic management. As a result, the FSP began to rapidly lose its electorate, which shook its position of power. The powers of the socialists were full-scale only in 1981-86 and in 1988-93, and in other years they were limited to either the executive or the legislative branch, which led to the coexistence of either the left president with the right-wing governments, respectively (1986-88, 1993-95), either a right-wing president with a left-wing government (1997-2002), or to the complete departure of power into the hands of the right (1995-97). In the 1990s - early. 2000s the socialists lost all elections - from municipal to European (except parliamentary 1997).

Constant defeats weakened the function of the FSP as a "supporting element" of the party structure and, as a result, the positions of the entire left group of the French party system, already complicated by a sharp deterioration in the position of the communists. Before the beginning. 1990s The PCF managed to maintain a stable 8-10% electorate. But then it declined: to some of the voters, the positions of the PCF seemed too traditional and dogmatic, to the other, the largest, not radical enough. In the 2002 presidential elections, only 3.4% of voters voted for the general secretary of the FKP R.Yu. The PCF, which has finally lost its position of a significant political force, lags behind in popularity the extreme leftist parties, whose leaders in the first round of the 2002 presidential elections in aggregate won 11.2% of the vote (including Labor Force - 5.7%, Communist revolutionary league - 4.3%). The total percentage of FSP and FKP supporters in 1981-2002 decreased from 37 to 19.6%.

The loss of positions by traditional left-wing parties is largely due to deep shifts in French society: the transition to a post-industrial stage of development, an increase in educational level, the elimination of the most egregious forms of inequality, the erosion of the former large social groups and their political subcultures, the departure of generations that considered class opposition, presidential or parliamentary versions of the republican system. All this leads to an increase in voting not by social belonging, but based on personal political predilections and interests. Hence the emergence of multiple small parties and the fragmentation of the electorate.

In modern France, a situation has developed when the small number of supporters of the latest world public projects (neoliberalism, modernization, integration) does not allow the formation of a large party in support of them. On the contrary, a significant segment of voters, demanding changes, understands by them a movement backward, a kind of counter-reformation. The most consistent and active opponents of neoliberalism and integration are the electorate of right-wing and left-wing extremist parties: 1/3 of the voting French.

The rise to power of the far-right National Front began in 1974 (0.9% in the presidential elections). For a long time NF did not appear to be a significant political force. Its importance began to grow rapidly in the 1990s, when a deep and protracted economic crisis gripped France.

The ideological constructions of SF are very primitive. The long-term deterioration of the French economy is explained by the influx of immigrants who occupied jobs and a conspiracy of large foreign capital and "Brussels technocrats" who are alien to French interests. The proposed recipes are strengthening the presidential power and security structures, ending immigration, leaving the EU, including abandoning the euro.

The NF is not yet able to transform an increase in electoral influence into an increase in political influence. The majority electoral system and the refusal of the central organizations of the OPR and the FSP from pre-election agreements with the NF have so far contributed to a fairly successful reflection of attempts by the extreme right to penetrate various government bodies, incl. to the National Assembly. Therefore, the third major party in France is still a "power without power", which does not influence domestic and foreign policy.

Relatively low trade union importance is characteristic of modern France. The trade union movement, like the party movement, is distinguished by the multiplicity of its constituent organizations. The main ones are: the General Confederation of Labor (CGT), traditionally close to the PCF; the socialist-oriented French Democratic Confederation of Labor (FDKT), the independent CGT-Force Uvrier and the General Confederation of Personnel. French trade unions, formerly really mass organizations that united St. 30% of wage earners now claim 1.5 million members (10% of the wage labor force). However, the overwhelming majority of this number are functionaries who work for hire (for example, in the FDKT - 810 thousand out of 865 thousand declared members).

Among the entrepreneurial associations, the largest is the Movement of French Companies (Medef), which groups 750 thousand firms. Medef takes an active part in the development of economic policy, gives the government recommendations on foreign economic issues, along with trade unions participates in the regulation of the labor market and in the management of the social sphere.

Domestic policy since the 1980s was distinguished by significant instability. In conditions when the two main ruling parties offered the society diametrically opposed variants of the social structure and development model, the course directly depended on the party affiliation of the Prime Minister and turned sharply with his change. When this post was occupied by the socialists, domestic policy had a pronounced social orientation and a redistributive character; these traits were lost when representatives of the ODA rose to the head of government, seeking to support business by reducing redistribution. The frequent change of the ruling parties at the helm of the government deprived both the ODA and the FSP of the opportunity to complete the reforms initiated by each of them, which negatively affected the state of the economy. The course was more consistent in other areas of public life, where the reforms being carried out were not canceled with the change of government. So, in the 1980s and 90s. the death penalty was abolished; an administrative reform was carried out, uniting 96 departments in 22 larger regions; the powers of local authorities have been expanded. In the social sphere, there have been: a decrease in the retirement age from 63 to 60 years, an increase in the duration of vacations to 5 weeks, a reduction in the working week from 40 to 39, and then to 35 hours, the expansion of trade union rights, etc.

One of the main directions of the domestic policy of the government of Jean-Paul Raffarin is the fight against crime, which really increased significantly in the 1990s. with the aggravation of the economic situation, the growth of unemployment, especially among immigrants. Reducing the level of crime was the central slogan of the election campaign of J. Chirac, who insisted in this regard on the need to strengthen the relevant power structures. In the 2nd floor. In 2002, a police reform was carried out: its staffs (which were at the level of 1945 - with a 20 million population growth) and the powers of the police were expanded. Another direction of domestic policy is administrative reform, which provides for decentralization, giving greater independence to local authorities.

The main direction of French foreign policy in the last quarter of 20 - early. 21 c. European construction appeared. The creation of a Common Economic Space, a common political power, a joint defense system has invariably been proclaimed as the main goals of all presidents and all governments. France supported all measures to unite Europe: the Schengen Agreement of 1990, the Maastricht Treaty (although only 50.8% of voters voted in favor of it in a national referendum), the Amsterdam (1997) and Nice (2000) treaties. She was a supporter of the accession to the EU of Greece, Spain and Portugal and a new phase of enlargement in the East European direction, scheduled for 2004, albeit with reservations regarding the distribution of agricultural subsidies.

France's foreign policy is characterized by constant anti-Atlanticism, which was especially pronounced in the position of Charles de Gaulle, which became fainter after his departure, but did not completely disappear. France constantly opposes its position to the American on practically all issues of international life. The most recent example was the attitude of France to American actions in Iraq, which caused another deterioration in Franco-American relations.

From ser. 1990s there were changes in relations with developing countries, expressed in the refusal to preserve priority zones of strategic influence in the former colonies and in a more global approach, providing for the reorientation of aid towards the poorest countries, regardless of their former colonial affiliation.

A member of NATO since its inception, France left the military organization in 1966. She has not returned to it until now, although in 1995 she again became a member of the NATO Defense Committee, and in 1999 she participated in the operation in Kosovo. This return is becoming more and more problematic given France's desire to create an independent EU Armed Forces.

The French Armed Forces include the Army, the Navy and the Air Force, and the Gendarme Corps. The number of the Armed Forces is 390 thousand people. (including the Navy 63 thousand people and the Air Force 83 thousand people). The transition to a professional army (since 2000) was carried out within the framework of the military reform carried out since 1996, the completion of which is scheduled for 2015. Its main tasks are to revise the military doctrine with a shift in emphasis on rapid response to suppress hotbeds of conflict anywhere in the world, increase the effectiveness of the armed forces in reducing their number to about 300 thousand people, as well as reducing military spending. Their share in the state budget for 1992-2002 decreased from 3.4 to 2.57% while maintaining and even expanding funding for priority programs in the field of advanced weapons. In terms of military expenditures, France significantly surpasses Germany, Great Britain, and Italy. France also has higher spending on military R&D and arms purchases (in the 2002 budget - 28% of military spending).

France is one of the most powerful military powers in the world. Its military-industrial complex provides the national Armed Forces with modern types of weapons, and also carries out their wide export abroad. In 2002, France ranked 3rd in the world for the export of conventional weapons. France is a nuclear power, armed with 348 nuclear warheads. They are equipped with ground-based aircraft and aircraft of the aircraft carrier "Charles de Gaulle", as well as 2 submarines (the launch of the third is planned for 2004).

France has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. France recognized the USSR on October 28, 1924.

Economy of France

The economic evolution of France in the 2nd half. 20th century was distinguished by an unusually large scale of state activity. This intervention, which allowed France to overcome the historical backwardness in the economic sphere, to mid. 1960s was relatively efficient. But later attempts to expand the participation of the state in production, to preserve the "redistributive economy" and the "welfare state" were an anachronism that led to a deterioration in the state of the French economy and a decrease in the dynamics of its development. With the transition of the executive and legislative branches to the center-right in the economic and social sphere, liberalization reforms began.

France's GDP 1,520 trillion euros (2002) France ranks fourth in terms of its share in world GDP and exports. However, the share of F. in the GDP and exports of developed countries in the 1980s and 1990s. decreased: respectively from 6.9 to 6.04%, and from 8.86 to 8.11%. Per capita GDP 25.50 thousand euros (2002). Unemployment 9.1%, annual consumer price growth 1.8% (2002).

Economic growth 1980s - early. 2000s characterized by unevenness. Key macro indicators grew slowly in the beginning of both decades, especially in 1991-95; favorable conditions developed in the 2nd half. 1980s and in 1996-2001. A new recession was noted in 2002 and was largely due to a decrease in global demand and an increase in energy prices. The way out of the crisis was outlined in the middle. 2003.

The shifts in GDP by production consisted of a decrease in the importance of agriculture and industry, while the service sector increased. The share of the agricultural sector decreased in 1980-2002 from 3.7 to 3.1%, industry, including construction, - from 42.0 to 26.4%. Accordingly, services increased from 54.3% to 70.5%. The current structure of GDP by production is fully consistent with similar proportions in other developed countries. This also applies to the French employment structure, where the changes were going in the same direction. Over the specified period, the proportions of employment were redistributed from agriculture and industry with construction (a drop from 8.7 to 4.5% and from 34.2 to 23.1%, respectively) to the service sector (an increase from 57.1 to 72.4% ).

French industry (excluding construction) accounts for 22.2% of GDP, 3.93 million people employed, 20% of total investment, 94% of merchandise exports, 1/3 of foreign direct investment. The rather sluggish development of this area in the 1980s - mid. 90s in the last five years of the 20th century. followed by rapid growth (3.8% on average annually). Investments grew by 7-8%, incl. Intangible assets (training of specialists, R&D, purchase of computer programs, advertising) - by 10-12% per year. The acceleration was facilitated by a good world situation, an increase in domestic demand due to the resorption of unemployment, and a general improvement in the position of French private business, which had strengthened by the end of the century. The low exchange rate of the franc during the transition to the single euro currency played an important role. French industry survived the 1997-98 crisis without prejudice to itself. The reaction to the crisis was worse at the beginning. 21st century: in 2001, the increase in production was equal to only 0.6%, in 2002 - 1.6%.

In the 1980s and 90s. In industry, profound structural transformations continued, consisting in the concentration of efforts on several advanced industries - the automotive industry, the production of telecommunications equipment, pharmaceuticals and perfumery, aerospace engineering, and nuclear power. The total share of these 5 branches in the industrial turnover is 43.8%.

The leading position is occupied by the automotive industry (17.7% of the general industrial turnover). From the end. 1980s the annual production of cars is steadily at the level of 3 million units. (2002 - 3.100 million, 5.4% of world production, 20.3% of Western European). Export of cars is 42.6% of the total volume of their production. 99% of the industry's production belongs to 2 groups - Peugeot-Citroen and Renault. They control roughly 60% of the national market and 23.8% of the West European market, where they are still noticeably inferior to German manufacturers.

On the 2nd place in terms of production of pharmaceuticals and perfumery (in the general industrial turnover 13.2%). In terms of the cost of manufactured pharmaceuticals, France ranks 4th in the world, and in terms of per capita consumption, it ranks 3rd (after the USA and Japan). Export of the industry is 30% of production. The main manufacturers are the Ron-Poulenc concerns (6th in the world), Elf-Atochem and Air Likid.

Paris is a recognized perfume capital of the world, where such famous manufacturers of expensive cosmetics as Chanel, Ricci, Saint Laurent operate. More massive products are produced by L'Oreal - 13% of the world perfumery turnover, 1st place in the world. French perfumers export 38.5% of their products abroad.

Electrical and electronic engineering (13.0% of the total industrial turnover) is slightly inferior to pharmaceuticals and perfumery. More than 1/2 of the industry's products (54.6%) are office equipment and computers, long-distance communications equipment and electronic components. Exported 48.8% of products (including 59.8% of electronic components). The main manufacturer, the Alcatel concern, is one of the top three global manufacturers of telecommunications equipment. It accounts for 39.6% of the national sectoral market; the Thomson group (the world's second largest manufacturer of military electronic equipment) - 23%.

In the field of aerospace production, France is a recognized leader in Western Europe. Aerospatial is one of the leading members of the Airbus Industry European consortium (the main supplier of civil aircraft to the European market), where it owns 37.9% of the shares. It also owns a 70% stake in the Eurocopter association (1st place in the world in the production of civil and 2nd place in military helicopters). Concern "Arianspace" controls about half of the world market for commercial launches of artificial earth satellites.

In the last decades of the 20th century. nuclear power has become the backbone of the French energy industry, which now accounts for 10.5% of the total industrial turnover. This was facilitated by the presence of its own large reserves of uranium. With an increase in the consumption of primary energy resources in 1980-2002 from 56 to 134 million tons of standard fuel, the share of nuclear power plants in it constantly grew: in 1980-2002 from 6.6 to 38% of the total national consumption. The share of other energy carriers over these years either decreased (coal from 18.1 to 4%, oil products from 54.4 to 36%, hydropower from 8.6 to 3%), or grew insignificantly (gas from 7 to 14%, alternative types of energy - up to 7%). In 2002, nuclear power plants generated 77% of electricity (1st place in the world).

As in other developed countries, the transition to the post-industrial stage of development was accompanied in France by a further decline in the share of agriculture in the main national economic structures. The share of foodstuffs in national exports also decreased (9.6% in 2002). In absolute terms, during this period, the volume of agricultural production increased by 87%. And although French politicians no longer aim to turn the country into a "granary of Europe", as in de Gaulle's time, France accounts for 23.7% of agricultural production in Western Europe (1st place in the EU).

In the 1980s and 90s. the process of concentration continued in the industry. France has traditionally, since Napoleonic times, a country of small farms with fragmented land ownership. Although the average area of \u200b\u200bthe farm has almost doubled compared to the beginning. 1980s (42 and 23 hectares, respectively), 49% of farms are small and smallest (including 29.1% have an area less than 5 hectares). Only 1/3 of farms own agricultural areas of 50 hectares and more (including from 100 hectares - 12.2%). It is these large landowners who provide 75.7% of agricultural production.

An important factor in the development of agricultural production is the growth of technical equipment. From the end. 1980s the number of tractors in the French agricultural sector decreased, but mainly due to less powerful ones (up to 80 hp), while the share of more powerful ones increased from 16.2% to 33.8%. Many other machines and mechanisms are actively used. The industry is fully electrified.

Unlike most other European countries, whose agriculture is focused on animal husbandry, the agrarian sector in France is diversified. Crop production, which is considered the main activity of 39.8% of farms, occupies half of the arable land and gives 48.9% of the total value of agricultural products. Its traditional specialization is the production of soft wheat. France is one of the great grain powers of the modern world (3rd place among developed countries and 1st in Western Europe, half of Western European grain exports). Wheat accounts for 64% of the production of crops grown (55% - for soft). In terms of wheat exports, France is in 2-3rd places in the world (with Canada after the United States).

Other grain crops include oats, barley, rye, and corn. Viticulture, oilseed production, horticulture and horticulture play an important role. 13.9% of farms operate in viticulture. Vineyards cover 2.9% of arable land, but this industry provides 28.5% of agricultural products. France is the main world wine producer (it shares the 1st-2nd places in the world with Italy). Production volume 62.93 million hectoliters (2002). More than a thousand varieties of wines are produced, 1/4 of which are vintage. OK. 20% of wines are exported. The oilseed sector provides 6.3% of agricultural production. France accounts for 39.2% of European oilseed production. Vegetable and horticultural products account for 10.5% of the total value of agricultural products. In terms of per capita consumption of vegetables, France is a leader in the modern world. It takes the 2nd place in the world in apple harvest, the 1st-2nd place in Western Europe in the harvest of apricots and pears.

Livestock gives 51.1% of the value of agricultural products, incl. breeding of cattle - 16.1%. By its livestock, France is in 1st place in Western Europe, in 6th - in the world (20.3 million heads). This is about 1/4 of the EU livestock. France also accounts for 10% of the sheep population and 12.9% of the EU pigs (15.93 and 9.32 million heads, respectively). It is the leading European meat producer and is in the top five of the world's meat producers (3755 million tons in 2002). Dairy farming is also developed (18% of the value of agricultural products). France is the second largest producer of cheese (over 2 million tons) and butter in the world, and the second EU country for the production of whole milk products. Poultry farming is developing well: here France is the second in the world after the USA and the first in Europe.

France is one of the most powerful transport powers in the world. Road and air transportations, as well as railway transport, reached a high level. These industries account for 7.3% of GDP and 7.9% of employment. In 2002, the total volume of land transportation reached 215.3 billion tkm; 79% of it (169.8 billion) was carried out by road transport. France has a dense network of artificial turf roads (1.1 million km - second in the world after the United States). In terms of the quality of the road surface, the equipment of signs with French roads in the continental part of Europe, perhaps only German ones are comparable. Cargoes are transported by 9.2 million trucks, 10% of transportation is combined.

The length of the railroads peaked in the 1930s. and then decreased (2002 - 32 thousand km). Freight turnover is 50.4 billion ton-kilometers. Passenger traffic is 48.9 billion passengers / km. 2/3 of their volume by the number of passengers falls on the Paris hub. Its exclusive dominance over the highly centralized railroad network is a characteristic feature of French railroad construction since the 19th century.

French railways are actively electrified. The length of the electrified lines is 13,570 km. High-speed transport (350 km / h) is widely represented. France is one of the world leaders in its development and implementation. The first express line was opened in 1981 between Paris and Lyon. Now such lines connect the capital with Marseille, Strasbourg, Nice, La Rochelle, as well as Brussels and London (tunnel across the English Channel). In the future, the extension of the line to Brussels to Amsterdam and Cologne, La Rochelle - to Bordeaux, Lyon - to Italy and Switzerland.

In 2002, 79.6 million passengers and 1.9 million tons of cargo were transported by air. The bulk of traffic is at the Paris complex, where 2 large airports operate: Roissy-Charles de Gaulle and Orly (together 67.3% of all national domestic and foreign passenger traffic and 89% of freight traffic). Le Bourget, formerly the capital's main airport, now serves only business aviation. Regional airports - Nice, Satole (Lyon) and Toulouse - together carry 19.7 million passengers per year, 6.3% of the national cargo volume.

The importance of water transport in domestic and foreign transport is not great. The tonnage of the merchant fleet is 4.5 million tons. France has 89 seaports with a total cargo turnover of 300 million tons. 90% of it falls on 6 ports, incl. 48% - to Marseille and Le Havre (113 and 47.4 million tons, respectively); the rest of the traffic goes through Dunkirk, Calais, Rouen and Bordeaux. The length of inland waterways is 8.5 thousand km, but only 5.5 thousand are used. Freight turnover of river transport is 181.6 billion ton-kilometers (2001).

1990s became a period of extremely rapid development of the communications sector (more precisely, information and communication services); in 1996-2000 the average annual growth of its production was 20%. The growth was combined with huge qualitative shifts, which made it possible not only to eliminate the long lag in the field of telephony from other Western countries, but also to create by the beginning. 21 c. one of the most modern electronic digital communication systems in Europe. The shifts were driven primarily by the leaps and bounds of mobile telephony and an increase in the number of Internet users. In 2001-02, the number of mobile subscribers increased from 31 to 37.3 million. This is 62.5% of the population - so far less than in the UK, Italy, Spain, Scandinavian countries, but more than in the United States (50%).

In 1997, there were 500 thousand Internet users in France, by the beginning. 2002 - already 19 million people, 31.9% of the population (among managers and people engaged in intellectual work - 73.1%, among students and pupils - 73.3%). By 2002, France accounted for 4% of the planetary number of users of the World Wide Web.

Trade plays an important role in the French economy (13.0% of GDP, 13.4% of employed). Major change since 1980s. - transition from small-scale to an integrated organization, to modern complexes: super- and hypermarkets. A supermarket in France is considered to be a store with a trading area of \u200b\u200b400-2500 m2, a hypermarket - from 2500 m2, more than 1/3 of the turnover of which is provided by trade in food products (as opposed to a "large store" with a similar area, but selling mainly manufactured goods). In the beginning. 1980s the share of integrated trade accounted for 27% of retail turnover, in 2002 - 51.4%. In 1986-95, 350-450 super- and hypermarkets were opened in the country annually, in 1996-97 - up to 200, and in 1998-2002 - up to 100. According to this indicator, France is in one of the first places in the EU, lagging only behind Finland, Ireland and Denmark. Now the market share of integrated trade is 66.7% for foodstuffs and 20.4% for manufactured goods. In the latter region, specialized (non-food) stores dominate, although their share is gradually decreasing (only in 1995-2002 - from 41.9 to 40.4%).

France continues to be a classic small-trade country. Retail outlets with an area of \u200b\u200bup to 40 m2, mainly selling food, account for at least 20% of enterprises in the industry. But their number is decreasing (in 1995-2002, on average by 6% per year), and the market share is falling (from 28.5 to 24.1%).

Between 1980 and 2002, the French economy experienced an abrupt growth in the share of the service sector. The dynamics of services between 1980-2002 exceeded the economic growth rate by 1.2 times. Services to enterprises developed especially rapidly (+ 5.2% on average annually). The main part of this area is services of a market nature, incl. 60% - services to enterprises. These are two groups: consulting, which includes at least a dozen types of activities (legal, advertising, accounting, engineering, marketing, information, etc.), etc. operating services - rental, recruiting, security measures, etc. Consulting employs 244.3 thousand enterprises, and 92.5 thousand operating services. It is clear that the main users of these services are companies (80% of consumption). But they are also large consumers of services to the population, especially those provided by travel agencies (57%), real estate firms (41%) and the hotel and restaurant sector (39%). The market for market services is growing mainly due to the expansion of their consumption by companies.

The credit and financial system is represented by a French bank, 412 commercial banks and 531 financial companies. Since joining the eurozone, the French bank has played a limited role in monetary policy. Monetary gold reserves in 2001 amounted to 97.75 million troy ounces; refinancing rate - 4.23%, interest rates on loans were 6.7%, on deposits - 2.63%. The banks are distinguished by a high degree of concentration: the 8 largest of them account for 86% of issued loans and 74% of assets. As elsewhere in industrialized countries, France is undergoing an active process of universalization of banking and financial services, intensifying competition between various financial institutions.

France is the only large developed country where in the 1980s and 90s. neither monetarist theory nor liberal economic practice were officially adopted. The economic policy of the socialists during the periods of their stay in power was based on Keynesian methods of regulation, i.e. on stimulating demand. The right-wingers have shown attempts to stimulate supply, however, quite limited.

In the economic policy of the end. 20th century there are several milestones that mark these opposing trends. The first was the nationalization of the early. 1980s, unprecedented in the post-war period. A third of the industry, 2 leading financial holdings, 36 large banks, and many insurance companies were in the hands of the state. At the same time, active price and currency controls were introduced, as well as a strict tax on large fortunes.

By means of huge budgetary infusions, the socialists achieved the recovery of state-owned companies. But the state budget deficit increased sharply, and business began to massively curtail production in France. The socialists' forced transition to austerity policies swung the electoral pendulum to the right - and the ODA, which won the parliamentary elections, attempted to turn the economy "facing the market", which became the next milestone in economic policy. The privatization of state-owned companies began, the deregulation of the financial sphere (the abolition of control over foreign exchange transactions, over the movement of capital, the removal of numerous restrictions on financial markets, the elimination of price controls). The socialists who seized power in 1988 did not return to nationalization and did not make any changes in the financial sphere. However, they practically stopped privatization and again stimulated demand, operating with the expenditure side of the state budget. The increased tax burden has become a serious factor in reducing the profitability of enterprises. The ineffectiveness of this policy, especially during the crisis, early. 1990s, contributed to the next transition of (legislative) power to the ODA. Formed from its representatives the government of E. Balladure, then A. Juppe again tried to "shift the steering wheel" to the right. But in the context of the ongoing crisis in the economy, the right-wingers were again given only a three-year term. In 1997, with the victory of the socialists in the parliamentary elections (the government of L. Jospin), a new milestone was outlined in economic policy: another long turn to the left.

Foreign observers called Jospin's economic policy "dirigism," although it looked like that mainly in comparison with the economic course of the Anglo-Saxon countries. The state no longer provided direct support to either individual companies or industries; state regulation was formally aimed at improving the general economic climate, more often indirect leverage was used. Jospin carried out a very large privatization (180 billion francs) in order to bring the budget in line with the requirements of the Maastricht Treaty. However, in France, large state property remained, state control over the prices of natural monopolies, tariffs for health services, the dynamics of rent and prices for 80% of agricultural products falling under the provisions of European pricing. The socialists continued to stimulate demand by redistributing national income in favor of wage labor.

The redistributive measures carried out under the slogan of “equalizing the incomes of labor and capital” included a reduction in taxes from the population and an increase in taxes from companies. In 1997-98 additional fiscal payments were imposed on companies: social tax on profits, general tax on polluting industries and a corporate tax surcharge for firms with St. 50 million francs (for almost all, except for small businesses), etc. In total, the increase reached 4.5 billion euros. At the same time, the fiscal pressure on "wealthy" individuals was increased (additional taxation of income from operations with securities, from savings, etc.), which included income recipients of the middle and upper groups.

Huge sums of tax revenues were used to improve the situation of the low-income strata (in 2000-01 their tax payments decreased by 21 billion euros), as well as to expand employment by increasing jobs in the public sector (3 youth employment programs) and increasing the flexibility of the labor market (reducing working week from 39 to 35 hours while maintaining unchanged wages in exchange for permission to previously prohibited overtime and Sunday work, night shifts, etc.). These measures, which coincided with the improvement in the global economic situation, had a positive effect: unemployment began to decline; the creation of 1 million jobs pushed the movement of domestic demand and the dynamics of economic growth; the growth of tax revenues contributed to the reduction of the budget deficit, the national debt decreased. But government policy worsened the position of companies. The level of their taxation in France is still one of the highest in Europe: the corporate tax rate is 42%, entrepreneurs pay 60% of total contributions to social funds (which is equal in volume to 6% of GDP). The profitability of companies was at a low level - 15.6% even in the prosperous 2000. The subsequent deterioration of the global market situation contributed to its further decline and, as a consequence, stagnation of investments, the cessation of employment growth in the entrepreneurial sector, and then in the public sector of the economy, where employment programs themselves exhausted. As a result of these processes, the volume of tax revenues to the budget decreased, the expenses of which remained at the same level. They could be reduced by reducing social articles. The government tried to reduce the spending on health care somewhat by tightening control over public hospital spending, but backed down in the face of a giant wave of health workers' strikes. In the same way, the reform in the sphere of financing of higher and secondary education failed. The pension reform, which has been debated for 5 years, has not been launched, the need for which has long matured in connection with the progressive aging of the population. To the end. 2002 reached 2.7% of GDP, the budget deficit, which in 2003 increased to 4.0%, thus surpassing the Maastricht maximum. The national debt also reached it (2003 - 61.2% of GDP).

The government of representatives of the ODA (later the SON), headed by J.-P. Raffarin, formed in June 2002, sees its primary task in the economic sphere in supporting entrepreneurship, which should help improve both the general economic and social situation (resolving unemployment through the creation of new jobs in the business sector). In this regard, motivating his actions by the need to streamline the state of the state budget, Raffarin curtailed state employment programs and began to change the tax system. The first was a 5% cut in the income tax, followed by an increase in the lower cap on the tax base for large estates. State-owned companies will be privatized, incl. natural monopolies. The government plans to begin reforming health care and higher education systems in the near future and has already announced the start of a pension reform that includes increased seniority and increased contributions to pension funds.

The announced reforms cause extreme discontent among the population, who see them as a threat to the standard of living. In 2001, the average monthly wage of a full-time employee in the private and semi-public sector after taxation was € 1,700. The hourly wages for full-time workers were about 20% higher than those for part-time workers. For management personnel and persons with higher education, the average monthly salary was 2.6 times higher than for workers and employees; this gap persists from the beginning. 1990s Discrimination against female labor is equally stable: a woman in any position receives 25% less than a man. The income of the French also includes numerous and varied social benefits, which together give an average of at least 1/3 of the increase in wages.

In 2002, of the income received by the population, 16.7% was spent on savings, and 83.3% was spent. In the structure of consumer expenditures, 15.4% were expenses for the maintenance and repair of housing, 12.9% - for food, 9.6% - for the purchase of clothing and footwear, 6.4% - consumer durables (incl. 2.9% - for cars). 6.3% each was spent on payments for electricity and health services. Leisure and telecommunications services were the largest items of expenditure (together 21.4%). More than 90% of families live in comfortable apartments or separate houses with all conveniences. The same percentage of families own at least one car, almost 100% have a refrigerator, 67% have a freezer, 91% have a washing machine, 60% have a microwave, etc. Every 9th family owns a country house or dacha. Living conditions in rural areas differ little from urban ones.

The turn of the 20th - 21st centuries marked by a significant increase in the importance of the foreign economic sphere in economic life. The export quota in 2002 was 27.2%; 86% of exports and 79% of imports came from EU countries; 82.7% of export - goods, incl. 69.7% - industrial products (machinery and equipment - 24.7%). Fast paced from the middle. 1990s the export of capital grew, in which France had previously lagged behind. In 2001, the total volume of foreign direct investment amounted to 197 billion euros. Accumulated foreign investments in 2001 exceeded 500 billion euros (1/10 of the world volume).

Science and culture of France

France is one of the world's leading scientific powers. National expenditure on R&D € 30,545 million, or 2.14% of GDP (4th in the world) (2001). Science employs 314.5 thousand people, 48.9% of them are the teaching staff of universities, which in France are approx. 20 (including the oldest in Europe Parisian - Sorbonne and the University of Montpellier, founded respectively in the 13th and 15th centuries). 160 thousand people are directly involved in scientific research and experimental design. (75% in the private sector). They are focused on various research and development companies, laboratories and technical centers (there were 5373 of those in 2000). The share of the state in financing scientific activities was 21.7% (2001); the funds received were directed mainly to basic research, as well as to such industries as nuclear energy, various space programs, weapons production, transport and communications. The business sector focuses on applied research, mainly in electronics, general engineering, automotive, and the chemical industry. These industries accounted for 46.7% of patents issued to residents. However, despite the considerable amount of funds allocated for R&D, French scientific thought in the technical field lags behind its main foreign competitors. Out of 160.0 thousand patents registered in France in 2001, residents received only 21.6 thousand (13.5%); the balance on trade in patents and licenses is persistently negative. World names belong to the French primarily in the social sciences: in sociology F. Durkheim, K. Levy-Strauss, M. Foucault, A. Touren, in history - F. Braudel.

There is hardly another country that in the last 3-4 centuries has had such a powerful influence on Western and world cultures as F. Castles on the Loire, parks and palaces of Versailles, paintings by old masters from Clouet to Poussin, Dreams, Chardin, Delacroix romantics and Courbet, the impressionists, the musical creations of Berlioz and Ravel are world-class masterpieces. Since the time of Louis XIV, Paris has been considered the cultural capital of the world. In the 20th century. this tradition has been continued. Here in the interwar and postwar years, artists from all over the world lived and worked - the Spaniards Picasso and Dali, the Italian Modigliani and the Dutchman Mondrian, the French Marquet, Signac, Léger, who together represented almost all the numerous directions of modern painting; France is the birthplace of modern abstractionism and, along with the USA, op-art and pop-art.

French literature, the first written monument of which dates back to 842, has always been one of the largest phenomena in world literature. The medieval tradition of literary creativity ("The Song of Roland", the works of troubadours and trouvers, urban fablio, poems by F. Villon) continued in the 16th century. the poets of the Pleiades, Rabelais and Montaigne, in the 17th century. - Racine, Corneille, Moliere, La Fontaine, in the 18th century. - Voltaire, Beaumarchais, encyclopedists. In the 19th century. French literature was decorated with such great names as Hugo and Balzac, Stendhal and Flaubert, Zola and Maupassant, in the beginning. 20th century - M. Proust. In France, in the interwar years, a literary and philosophical course of existentialism was born - the philosophy of existence (J.-P. Sartre, A. Camus, Simone de Beauvoir). In the postwar period, the “family” and historical novels of F. Heria, E. Bazin, M. Druon became brilliant examples of critical realism. A. Robbe-Grillet and Natalie Sarroth were the creators of the "new novel" movement. The well-known names of A. Maurois, M. Eme, B. Viana. Writers A. Gide, F. Mauriac, Saint-Jon Perce are laureates of the Nobel Prize in Literature.

French cinematography is very popular in the world. In the works of directors M. Carnet, C. Christian-Jacques, R. Claire, R. Vadim stars such as J. Gabin, J. Philip, Bourville, Fernandel, L. de Funes, B. Bardot were shot. French cinema is known primarily for the names of L. Besson, P. Richard, J. Depardieu, Annie Girardot. The enduring tradition of French chanson after World War II was continued by Edith Piaf, Yves Montand, C. Aznavour, Delilah, J. Brel, Brassans, S. Adamo, Mireille Mathieu, and others.

The Basic Law established a mixed republican form of government.

The President is the head of state and is at the top of the hierarchy of government bodies. He is elected by an absolute majority of the votes cast.

The voting time is set by a government decision. The election of a new president takes place no less than twenty and no later than thirty-five days before the expiration of the term of office of the president in office. The most important personal authority of the President of France is the right to dissolve the National Assembly. The President appoints ministers and all senior officials. He is the head of the armed forces and chairs the Supreme Councils and National Defense Committees. The President is assisted in his activities by his personal apparatus.

France has a bicameral parliament. It consists of two chambers - the National Assembly and the Senate. The main function of parliament - passing laws - is reflected in the country's Basic Law. The constitution clearly defines the parliament's competence. Issues not included in this list are the responsibility of the government. The National Assembly is elected for a term of 5 years by direct universal suffrage under a mixed majoritarian system. Senators are elected for 9 years by collegia in each department. The chamber is renewed by 1/3 every three years. Passive suffrage is granted for election to the National Assembly from the age of 23, to the Senate from the age of 35. In France, there is no right to recall a parliamentarian.

89. GOVERNMENT IN JAPAN IN MODERN TIME

In Japan, the form of government is a parliamentary (constitutional) monarchy, the introduction of

the second, instead of the dualistic, was formalized by the constitution of 1947. Compared with the constitution of 1889, the new Basic Law of Japan was a significant advance on the path of democratization. I Parliament is the supreme body of state

state power and the only legislative body of the state. Parliament consists of two I chambers - the House of Representatives and the House of Councilors. Delegates to both chambers are elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Each of the chambers can independently elect its chairman and officers, establish its own rules of meetings, procedures and internal discipline.

To officials elected for the entire term

the powers of the chamber include the chairman, vice-chairman, interim chairman, chairman of committees and general secretary of the Yaalata. Of these, only the Secretary General is not elected from among the members of parliament. By tradition, deputy chairmen of the chamber receive their posts from among the deputies from opposition parties. One of the most important

the most important foreign policy authority of the parliament is the approval of international treaties concluded by the government. Each chamber forms two types of commissions - permanent and special.

The emperor is a symbol of the state and the unity of the people, his status is determined by the will of the people, who owns sovereign power.

The imperial throne in Japan is passed on by succession to a member of the imperial family. The eldest son of the emperor is preferred. A female person cannot inherit the throne. 1 sGo