Electrical power engineering properties and examples. Electricity concept

The development and deployment of the electric power industry in Russia is based on the principles formulated in the GOELRO plan (1920). The power industry in Russia plays a huge role in ensuring the normal functioning of the country's economy. Providing scientific and technological progress, the electric power industry has a decisive influence not only on development, but also on the territorial organization of productive forces, primarily industry: transmission of electricity over long distances contributes to more efficient development of fuel and energy resources, regardless of how far they are from places of consumption; due to the possibility of intermediate selection of electricity for supplying those areas through which high-voltage transmission lines (so-called electronic transport) pass, the density of the location of industrial enterprises increases; on the basis of the massive use of electrical and thermal energy in technological processes, electric-consuming (aluminum, magnesium, titanium, ferroalloys, etc.) industries appear, in which the share of fuel and energy costs in the cost of finished products is much higher than in traditional industries; the electric power industry is an important regional-forming factor, for example, in Siberia and the Far East, it largely determines the specialization of regions and the formation of the TPK.

In the last fifty years, the electric power industry has been one of the most dynamically developing industries in our country. It outstripped both industry in general and heavy industry in terms of development rates. Russia ranks fourth in terms of total electricity production in the world after the United States, China and Japan.

The main consumer of electricity is industry (about 60% of all generated energy). There, electricity is used as a driving force and for a number of technological processes. The fact that the products of the electric power industry cannot be accumulated, but are transmitted through power lines, significantly expands the geography of the location of enterprises. The location of enterprises of the electric power industry itself depends on the location of fuel and energy resources and consumers.

An important feature of the electricity in Russia is the existence of power systems united in the Unified Energy System (UES). This makes it possible to more efficiently distribute electricity throughout the country, manage the balance of electrical power (see Figure 1).

Thermal power plants (TPP) are the main components of the Russian electric power industry. They concentrate 2/3 of the total installed capacity. But since the number of hours of use of the average annual installed capacity of TPPs is at least 1.5 times greater than that of hydroelectric power plants, their share in electricity generation is even greater. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that heat power engineering has the most powerful and comprehensive polluting effect on the environment.

Among TPPs, there are condensing (CES) and combined heat and power plants (CHP). By the nature of customer service, state district power plants (GRES) and central ones located near the center of energy loads are distinguished. TPPs convert the energy of fossil fuel combustion into electrical energy. At the CHPP, the steam after the turbine is either sent to the consumer, or returns back to the system, giving its heat to the water that goes to the consumer. Therefore, it is profitable to build CHP in big cities and near large industrial enterprises, since the heat transfer radius is very small (10-12 km). In Moscow, for example, there are over two dozen thermal power plants. And although the maximum capacity of the CHPP, as a rule, does not exceed 1 mln. kW, their efficiency is more than 70%. But, nevertheless, the primary role among TPPs is played by IES, despite the fact that their efficiency is only 30-35%. Gravitating towards both fuel sources and places of consumption, they are the most widespread. There are over 70 IES with a capacity of 1 mln. kW and more each.

The state district power station with a capacity of over 2 million kW stands out. GRES provide over 70% of all electricity in Russia. The largest Russian state district power plants: Central region - Konakovskaya, Kostromskaya (3600 MW); North Caucasus - Novocherkasskaya; Volga region - Zainskaya; Ural - Reftinskaya (the third largest in Europe), Iriklinskaya, Troitskaya; Western Siberia - Surgutskaya (runs on associated gas), Nazarovskaya; Eastern Siberia - Berezovskaya, Kharanorskaya, Gusinoozerskaya; Far East - Neryungri.

Within the framework of the project of the Kansk-Achinsk fuel and energy complex (KATEK), the construction of the most powerful state district power station with a capacity of 6400 MW is underway.

Recently, among thermal power plants, installations of fundamentally new types have appeared: gas turbine power plants (GT), where instead of steam, gas turbines operate on liquid or gaseous fuels, which basically removes the problem of water supply and thereby increases the importance of water-deficient areas for their placement. GTs are being prepared for commissioning at Krasnodarskaya and Shaturskaya GRES; steam and gas turbine units (CCGT), in which the heat of the exhaust gases is used to heat water or to obtain low pressure steam in steam generators, CCGTs are being prepared for commissioning at Nevinnomysskaya and Karmanovskaya GRES; magnetohydrodynamic generators (MHD generators) for direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy, MHD generators are being prepared for commissioning at Mosenergo CHPP-21 and Ryazanskaya GRES.

Geothermal power plants (Geothermal power plants), whose operation is based on the development of the deep heat of the earth's interior, fundamentally resemble thermal power plants, but, in contrast to the latter, they are connected not with consumers, but with energy sources. Geothermal power plants convert the internal energy of superheated water or steam escaping from the Earth's interior into electrical energy. Geothermal power plants are being built in areas where significant volcanic activity occurs. In 1968, in Kamchatka, in the Pauzhetka river valley, the first and so far the only Russian Geothermal Power Plant with a capacity of 11 MW was built.

Hydroelectric power plants (HPPs) are very efficient energy sources. They use renewable resources, are easy to operate and have a very high efficiency - over 80%. The HPP employs 15-20 times less personnel. For these reasons, hydroelectric power plants produce cheaper energy than thermal power plants: its cost is 5-6 times lower. Power plants of this type produce 18% of all Russian electricity.

The hydroelectric power plant converts the energy of the water flow into electrical energy. The construction of a hydroelectric power station requires the solution of a whole range of problems (irrigation of lands, the development of water transport and fisheries, environmental protection), and the best solution is the cascade principle of construction, when hydroelectric power stations are "strung" onto the river. The cascades of hydroelectric power stations were built on the Volga and Kama, on the Irtysh, on the Angara and Yenisei, on the small rivers of Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, on the tributaries of the Amur, on the Vilyuya, on the Svir. Large hydro power plants include power plants with a capacity of over 25 MW. It is profitable to build hydroelectric power plants on mountain rivers with a large drop and water consumption. Russian hydroelectric power plants are mostly flat, and, therefore, low-pressure and ineffective. The construction of hydroelectric power stations on flat rivers also entails significant material damage caused by flooding of the territory under the reservoirs.

There are several largest hydroelectric power plants in Russia: the Volga - Kama cascade (11 hydroelectric power plants: Samara, Volgograd, Saratov, Cheboksarskaya, Kamskaya, etc.); the Angara - Yenisei cascade (Sayano-Shushenskaya (6400 MW), Krasnoyarskaya (6000 MW), Ust-Ilimskaya, Bratskaya (4500 MW), Irkutsk); Zeiskaya (Zeya) and Bureyskaya (Bureya) - on the tributaries of the Amur.

Pumped storage power plants (PSPPs) require the construction of not one, but two reservoirs at different levels. They are designed to relieve peak loads, and therefore it is advisable to build them near large cities. The Zagorskaya PSPP with a capacity of 1200 MW operates in Russia.

Tidal power plants (TPS) have a similar principle of operation, only they are built on the shores of the seas and oceans. The first TPP in the USSR was built in 1968 on the White Sea (Kislogubskaya).

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) use highly transportable fuels. At a consumption of 1 kg of uranium-235, heat is released, which is equivalent to burning 2.5 thousand tons of the best coal. This characteristic feature completely eliminates the dependence of nuclear power plants on the fuel and energy factor and provides the greatest flexibility in placement among power plants of all types. Nuclear power plants target consumers located in areas with a tense fuel and energy balance or where the identified resources of mineral fuel and hydropower are limited. However, along with these advantages, the nuclear power plant has a major drawback - it carries a constant and terrible threat to the environment. On April 26, 1986, one of the largest disasters in the history of mankind took place - the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant.

A nuclear power plant converts the fission energy of heavy or fusion of light atomic nuclei into electrical energy. The heat released as a result of a nuclear reaction heats water to a boil, steam rotates a turbine, etc. (similar to TPP).

Russia has priority in the peaceful use of nuclear energy. In 1954, the first experimental Obninsk NPP (Central Region) was commissioned. By the beginning of 1989, 15 nuclear power plants with a total capacity of 35 million kW were operating in the USSR. Currently, 11 NPPs are operating: Obninsk, Kola (1,760 MW), Petersburg (4,000 MW), Tverskaya, Smolensk, Kursk (4,000 MW), Novovoronezh (2,455 MW), Balakovskaya, Dimitrovgradskaya, Beloyarskaya (900 MW), Bilibinskaya.

In Russia, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power plants is 12% (for comparison: France 75%, Belgium 61%, Republic of Korea 54%, Germany 32%, USA 18%). In terms of electricity production at nuclear power plants, Russia is currently behind the United States (2.5 times), France and Japan.

A very promising branch of energy is the creation of wind power plants (WPP) and their complexes. The cost of electricity at a wind farm is lower than at any other power plant. Another advantage of the WPP is its absolute independence from any real estate. There is a project to create a wind farm network on the Kola Peninsula with a total capacity of 1000 MW.

The following development trends are characteristic of the electric power industry. First, the decrease in the fuel balance of power plants, first the share of fuel oil, and then natural gas, due to the construction of nuclear power plants and thermal power plants operating on open-cut coal, as well as large hydroelectric power plants (mainly in the eastern regions). Secondly, the completion of the formation of the UES with an increase in its maneuverability and reliability through the construction of peak power plants, ultrahigh voltage AC and DC power lines.

Power engineering

Electricity - the energy sector, which includes the production, transmission and sale of electricity. The electric power industry is the most important branch of the energy sector, which is explained by such advantages of electricity over other types of energy as the relative ease of transmission over long distances, distribution between consumers, as well as transformation into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, light, etc.). A distinctive feature of electric energy is the practical simultaneity of its generation and consumption, since electric current propagates through networks at a speed close to the speed of light.

The Federal Law "On Electricity" gives the following definition of the electric power industry:

Electric power industry is a branch of the economy of the Russian Federation, which includes a set of economic relations arising in the process of production (including production in the mode of combined generation of electric and thermal energy), transmission of electric energy, operational dispatch control in the electric power industry, sales and consumption of electric energy from the use of production and other property objects (including those included in the Unified Energy System of Russia), owned by property or on another basis stipulated by federal laws, to subjects of the electric power industry or other persons. Electricity is the basis for the functioning of the economy and life support.

The definition of the electric power industry is also contained in GOST 19431-84:

Electricity is a section of the energy sector that ensures the electrification of the country based on the rational expansion of the production and use of electrical energy.

History

History of the Russian power industry

Dynamics of electricity production in Russia in 1992-2008, in billion kWh

The history of Russian and, perhaps, the world electric power industry dates back to 1891, when the outstanding scientist Mikhail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky carried out the practical transfer of electrical power of about 220 kW over a distance of 175 km. The resulting power line efficiency of 77.4% was sensationally high for such a complex multi-element design. This high efficiency was achieved thanks to the use of a three-phase voltage, invented by the scientist himself.

In pre-revolutionary Russia, the capacity of all power plants was only 1.1 million kWh, and the annual electricity generation was 1.9 billion kWh. After the revolution, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin, the famous GOELRO plan for the electrification of Russia was launched. It provided for the construction of 30 power plants with a total capacity of 1.5 million kW, which was implemented by 1931, and by 1935 it was exceeded 3 times.

History of the Belarusian electric power industry

The first information about the use of electric energy in Belarus dates back to the end of the 19th century. However, at the beginning of the last century, the energy base of Belarus was at a very low level of development, which determined the backwardness of commodity production and the social sphere: there was almost five times less industrial production per inhabitant than the average for the Russian Empire. The main sources of illumination in towns and villages were kerosene lamps, candles, torches.

The first power plant in Minsk appeared in 1894. She had a capacity of 300 hp. By 1913, three diesel engines from different companies were installed at the station and its capacity reached 1400 hp.

In November 1897, a direct current power plant in the city of Vitebsk gave the first current.

In 1913, on the territory of Belarus, there was only one steam turbine power plant, advanced in technical equipment, which belonged to the Dobrush paper mill.

The development of the energy complex of the Republic of Belarus began with the implementation of the GOELRO plan, which became the first long-term plan for the development of the national economy of the Soviet state after the revolution. The solution to the daunting task of electrifying the entire country made it possible to intensify work on the restoration, expansion and construction of new power plants in our republic. If in 1913 the capacity of all power plants on the territory of Belarus was only 5.3 MW, and the annual production of electricity was 4.2 million kWh, then by the end of the 30s the installed capacity of the Belarusian energy system had already reached 129 MW with an annual electricity generation of 508 million kWh.

The beginning of the rapid development of the industry was laid by the commissioning of the first stage of the Belorusskaya GRES with a capacity of 10 MW - the largest station in the pre-war period. BelGRES gave a powerful impetus to the development of 35 and 110 kV electrical networks. A technologically controlled complex has developed in the republic: a power plant - electrical networks - electricity consumers. The Belarusian energy system was created de facto, and on May 15, 1931, a decision was made to organize the Belenergo District Administration of State Power Plants and Grids of the Belarusian SSR.

For many years, Belorusskaya GRES remained the leading power plant in the republic. At the same time, in the 1930s, the development of the energy industry proceeds by leaps and bounds - new CHP plants appear, the length of high-voltage lines is significantly increased, and the potential of professional personnel is being created. However, this bright leap forward was canceled out by the Great Patriotic War. The war led to the almost complete destruction of the republic's electric power base. After the liberation of Belarus, the capacity of its power plants was only 3.4 MW.

It took power engineers literally heroic efforts to restore and exceed the pre-war level of the installed capacity of power plants and electricity production.

In the following decades, the industry continued to develop, its structure was improved, new energy enterprises were created. At the end of 1964, for the first time in Belarus, a 330 kV power transmission line “Minsk-Vilnius” was put into operation, which integrated our power system into the United Power System of the North-West, connected with the Unified Power System of the European part of the USSR.

The capacity of power plants in 1960-1970 increased from 756 to 3464 MW, and electricity production increased from 2.6 to 14.8 billion kWh.

The further development of the country's energy sector led to the fact that in 1975 the capacity of power plants reached 5487 MW, the production of electricity almost doubled compared to 1970. In the subsequent period, the development of the electric power industry slowed down: in comparison with 1975, the capacity of power plants in 1991 increased by slightly more than 11%, and electricity production - by 7%.

In 1960-1990, the total length of power grids increased 7.3 times. The length of the backbone 220–750 kV overhead lines has increased 16 times over 30 years and has reached 5875 km.

As of January 1, 2010, the capacity of the republic's power plants amounted to 8,386.2 MW, including 7,983.8 MW at the Belenergo State Production Association. This capacity is sufficient to fully meet the country's demand for electricity. At the same time, from 2.4 to 4.5 billion kWh are imported annually from Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Latvia in order to load the most efficient capacities and taking into account the repair of power plants. Such supplies contribute to the stability of the parallel operation of the power system of Belarus with other power systems and reliable power supply to consumers. ...

World electricity production

Dynamics of world electricity production (Year - billion kWh):

• 1890 - 9
• 1900 - 15
• 1914 - 37,5
• 1950 - 950
• 1960 - 2300
• 1970 - 5000
• 1980 - 8250
• 1990 - 11800
• 2000 - 14500
• 2005 - 18138,3
• 2007 - 19894,8

Main technological processes in the electric power industry

Electricity generation

Power generation is the process of converting various types of energy into electrical energy in industrial facilities called power plants. Currently, there are the following types of generation:

• Thermal power engineering... In this case, the thermal energy of combustion of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. Thermal power engineering includes thermal power plants (TPPs), which are of two main types:
  • Condensing (IES, the old abbreviation GRES is also used);
  • Heating (combined heat and power plants, CHP). Cogeneration is the combined production of electricity and heat at the same station;

IES and CHPP have similar technological processes. In both cases, there is a boiler in which fuel is burned and, due to the generated heat, steam is heated under pressure. Then the heated steam is fed to a steam turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into rotational energy. The turbine shaft rotates the rotor of an electric generator - thus the rotational energy is converted into electrical energy, which is supplied to the grid. The fundamental difference between CHP and IES is that part of the steam heated in the boiler goes to the needs of heat supply;

• Nuclear energy... It includes nuclear power plants (NPP). In practice, nuclear power is often considered a subspecies of thermal power generation, since, in general, the principle of electricity generation at nuclear power plants is the same as at thermal power plants. Only in this case, thermal energy is released not during fuel combustion, but during the fission of atomic nuclei in a nuclear reactor. Further, the scheme of electricity generation is not fundamentally different from a thermal power plant: steam is heated in a reactor, enters a steam turbine, etc. Due to some design features of a nuclear power plant, it is unprofitable to use it in combined generation, although some experiments in this direction have been carried out;
• Hydropower... It includes hydroelectric power plants (HPPs). In hydropower, the kinetic energy of water flow is converted into electrical energy. For this purpose, with the help of dams on the rivers, a difference in the levels of the water surface is artificially created (the so-called upper and lower reaches). Under the action of gravity, water is poured from the upper pool to the lower one through special channels in which water turbines are located, the blades of which are spun by a water stream. The turbine turns the rotor of the generator. Pumped storage stations (PSPP) are a special type of hydroelectric power station. They cannot be considered generating capacities in their pure form, since they consume almost as much electricity as they generate, but such stations are very effective in unloading the network during peak hours.

Recent studies have shown that the power of sea currents is many orders of magnitude greater than the power of all rivers in the world. In this regard, the creation of experimental sea hydroelectric power plants is underway.

• alternative energy... It includes methods of generating electricity that have a number of advantages compared to the "traditional" ones, but for various reasons have not received sufficient distribution. The main types of alternative energy are:
  • Wind power - the use of kinetic wind energy to generate electricity;
  • Solar energy - obtaining electrical energy from the energy of the sun's rays; The common disadvantages of wind and solar power engineering are the relative low power of the generators and their high cost. Also, in both cases, storage capacities are required at night (for solar energy) and calm (for wind energy) times;
  • Geothermal energy - use of the natural heat of the Earth to generate electrical energy. In fact, geothermal power plants are conventional thermal power plants, where the source of heat for heating steam is not a boiler or a nuclear reactor, but underground sources of natural heat. The disadvantage of such stations is the geographical limitation of their use: geothermal stations are profitable to build only in regions of tectonic activity, that is, where natural heat sources are most accessible;
  • Hydrogen energy - the use of hydrogen as a power fuel has great prospects: hydrogen has a very high combustion efficiency, its resource is practically unlimited, the combustion of hydrogen is absolutely environmentally friendly (the product of combustion in an oxygen atmosphere is distilled water). However, at the moment, hydrogen energy is not able to fully satisfy the needs of mankind because of the high cost of producing pure hydrogen and technical problems of its transportation in large quantities. In fact, hydrogen is just an energy carrier, and does not in any way solve the problem of producing this energy.
  • Tidal energy uses the energy of sea tides. The spread of this type of electricity is hindered by the need for too many factors to coincide in the design of a power plant: not just a sea coast is needed, but a coast on which the tides are strong and constant. For example, the Black Sea coast is not suitable for the construction of tidal power plants, since the water level differences in the Black Sea at high and low tide are minimal.
  • Wave energetics under close examination may be the most promising. Waves represent the concentrated energy of the same solar radiation and wind. Wave power in different places can exceed 100 kW per linear meter of the wavefront. There is almost always excitement, even in a calm ("dead swell"). On the Black Sea, the average wave power is about 15 kW / m. Northern seas of Russia - up to 100 kW / m. The use of waves can provide energy to marine and coastal communities. Waves can propel ships. The average pitching power of the vessel is several times higher than the power of its power plant. But so far, wave power plants have not gone beyond the scope of single prototypes.

Electricity transmission and distribution

The transmission of electrical energy from power plants to consumers is carried out through electrical networks. The power grid is a naturally monopoly sector of the power industry: the consumer can choose from whom to buy electricity (that is, the power supply company), the power supply company can choose among wholesale suppliers (power producers), however, the network through which electricity is supplied is usually one, and the consumer cannot technically choose the grid company. From a technical point of view, the electrical network is a combination of power transmission lines (PTL) and transformers located at substations.

• Power lines are a metal conductor through which an electric current passes. Nowadays, alternating current is almost universally used. The power supply in the vast majority of cases is three-phase, so the power line, as a rule, consists of three phases, each of which can include several wires. Power transmission lines are structurally divided into air and cable.
  • Overhead lines (OHL) suspended above the ground at a safe height on special structures called supports. As a rule, the wire on the overhead line does not have surface insulation; insulation is available at the points of attachment to the supports. Overhead lines have lightning protection systems. The main advantage of overhead power transmission lines is their relative cheapness in comparison with cable ones. Also, maintainability is much better (especially in comparison with brushless cable lines): it is not required to carry out excavation work to replace the wire, and visual control of the line condition is not difficult. However, overhead power lines have a number of disadvantages:
    • a wide strip of alienation: it is forbidden to erect any structures and plant trees in the vicinity of power lines; when the line passes through the forest, trees along the entire width of the right-of-way are cut down;
    • insecurity from external influences, for example, falling trees on the line and theft of wires; despite lightning protection devices, overhead lines also suffer from lightning strikes. Due to vulnerability, two circuits are often equipped on the same overhead line: the main and the backup;
    • aesthetic unattractiveness; this is one of the reasons for the almost ubiquitous transition to cable power transmission in urban areas.
  • Cable lines (CL) carried out underground. Electrical cables are of various designs, but common elements can be identified. The core of the cable consists of three conductors (according to the number of phases). The cables have both external and inter-core insulation. Typically, liquid transformer oil or oiled paper acts as an insulator. The conductive core of the cable is usually protected by steel armor. From the outside, the cable is covered with bitumen. There are collector and brushless cable lines. In the first case, the cable is laid in underground concrete channels - collectors. At certain intervals on the line, exits to the surface in the form of hatches are equipped - for the convenience of the penetration of repair teams into the collector. Brushless cable lines are laid directly in the ground. Brushless lines are much cheaper than collector lines during construction, but their operation is more expensive due to the inaccessibility of cable. The main advantage of cable power lines (in comparison with overhead lines) is the absence of a wide right of way. Provided that it is deep enough, various structures (including residential) can be built directly above the collector line. In the case of brushless installation, construction is possible in the immediate vicinity of the line. Cable lines do not spoil the city landscape with their appearance; they are much better protected from external influences than air lines. The disadvantages of cable power lines include the high cost of construction and subsequent operation: even in the case of brushless installation, the estimated cost of a running meter of a cable line is several times higher than the cost of an overhead line of the same voltage class. Cable lines are less accessible for visual observation of their condition (and in the case of brushless installation, they are not available at all), which is also a significant operational disadvantage.

Electricity consumption

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2008, global electricity consumption was about 17.4 trillion kWh.

Activities in the electric power industry

Operational dispatch control

The system of operational dispatch control in the electric power industry includes a set of measures for the centralized control of technological modes of operation of electric power facilities and power receiving installations of consumers within the Unified Energy System of Russia and technologically isolated territorial electric power systems, carried out by subjects of operational dispatch management authorized to carry out these measures in the procedure established by the Federal Law "On the Electricity". Operational control in the electric power industry is called dispatching, because it is carried out by specialized dispatching services. Dispatching control is carried out centrally and continuously throughout the day under the guidance of the operational managers of the power system - dispatchers.

Energosbyt

see also

Notes

Links

Energy structure by product and industry
Power engineering: electricity	Traditional Thermal power plants Condensing Power Plant (CES) Combined Heat and Power Plant (CHP) Hydropower Hydroelectric power plant (HPP) Pumped storage power plant (PSPP) Atomic Nuclear power plant (NPP) Floating nuclear power plant (FNPP) Alternative Geothermal Geothermal power plants (GeoTPP) Hydropower Small hydro power plants (SHPPs) Tidal power plants (TPP) Wave power plants Osmotic power plants Wind power Wind power plants (WPP) Sunny Solar power plants (SES) Hydrogen Hydrogen power plants Fuel cell plants Bioenergy Bioelectric power plants (BioTES) Small Diesel power plants Gas piston power plants Low power gas turbine plants Gasoline power plants Electrical network Electrical substations Power transmission lines (TL) Power transmission line supports
Heat supply: heat energy
Decentralized
Heating network

Fuel
industry :
fuel

Organic

Gaseous Natural gas Generator gas Coke oven gas Blast furnace gas Oil distillation products Underground gasification gas Synthesis gas Liquid Oil Gasoline Kerosene Diesel oil Fuel oil

Power engineering Is one of the leading energy sectors, which includes the sale, transmission and production of electricity. This energy sector is considered important, as it has great advantages over other types of energy, namely: distribution between consumers, it is easy to transport it over long distances and convert it into other energy (thermal, mechanical, light, chemical, etc.). A distinctive feature of electrical energy is its simultaneity in the generation and consumption of energy, since electric current travels through the networks at almost the speed of light.

Electricity generation. It is a process by which various types of energy are converted into electrical energy. This happens in power plants. For this period, there are several types:

1. Thermal power engineering. The principle is that combustion energy (thermal) of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. The thermal power industry includes thermal power plants - condensing and heating.
2. Nuclear energy. It includes nuclear power plants. The principle of electricity generation is similar to the generation of energy in thermal power plants. The difference is that thermal energy is obtained by fission of atomic nuclei in a reactor, and not by burning fuel.
3. Hydropower... This type of power generation includes hydroelectric power plants. Here the energy of the flow of water (kinetic) is converted into electricity. With the help of dams, an artificial difference in surface levels is created on rivers. Under the influence of gravity, water from the headwater overflows through special channels into the lower compartment. There are water turbines in the ducts, their blades are spinning up the water flow.

Sea currents are much more powerful than the currents of rivers all over the world, therefore, work is currently underway on the creation of marine hydroelectric power plants.

1. alternative energy... These include types of electricity generation that have a number of advantages in relation to traditional ones, but for some reason they have not received sufficient distribution. The main types of alternative energy:

Wind power - to obtain electricity, the kinetic energy of the wind is used.

Solar energy - electrical energy is obtained from the energy of the sun's rays.

The disadvantage of these types of alternative energy is that they are low-powered and the generators are expensive.

1. Geothermal energy... It uses the natural heat of the earth to generate electricity. Geothermal plants are conventional thermal power plants, where a nuclear reactor and a boiler are the source of heat for heating.

Also, the types of generation include: tidal energy, hydrogen energy and wave energy.

The transmission of electricity from power plants to consumers is carried out using electrical networks. From the technical point of view, the electrical network is a set of transformers that are located at substations and power lines.

Plan:

Introduction

• 1. History
  • 1.1 History of the Russian power industry
• 2 Main technological processes in the electric power industry
  • 2.1 Electricity generation
  • 2.2 Electricity transmission and distribution
  • 2.3 Electricity consumption
• 3 Activities in the electric power industry
  • 3.1 Operational dispatch control
  • 3.2 Energosbyt
Notes

Introduction

Thermal power plant and wind turbines in Germany

Electricity - the energy sector, which includes the production, transmission and sale of electricity. The electric power industry is the most important branch of the energy sector, which is explained by such advantages of electricity over other types of energy as the relative ease of transmission over long distances, distribution between consumers, as well as conversion into other types of energy (mechanical, thermal, chemical, light, etc.). A distinctive feature of electrical energy is the practical simultaneity of its generation and consumption, since electric current propagates through networks at a speed close to the speed of light.

The Federal Law "On Electricity" gives the following definition of the electric power industry:

Electric power industry is a branch of the economy of the Russian Federation, which includes a set of economic relations arising in the process of production (including production in the mode of combined generation of electric and thermal energy), transmission of electric energy, operational dispatch control in the electric power industry, sales and consumption of electric energy from the use of production and other property objects (including those included in the Unified Energy System of Russia), owned by property or on another basis stipulated by federal laws, to subjects of the electric power industry or other persons. Electricity is the basis for the functioning of the economy and life support.

The definition of the electric power industry is also contained in GOST 19431-84:

Electricity is a section of the energy sector that ensures the electrification of the country based on the rational expansion of the production and use of electrical energy.

1. History

For a long time, electrical energy was only an object of experiments and had no practical application. The first attempts at the useful use of electricity were made in the second half of the 19th century, the main directions of use were the recently invented telegraph, electroplating, military technology (for example, there were attempts to create ships and self-propelled vehicles with electric motors; mines with an electric fuse were developed). The sources of electricity were initially galvanic cells. A significant breakthrough in the mass distribution of electricity was the invention of electric machine sources of electrical energy - generators. Compared to galvanic cells, the generators had a greater power and useful life, were significantly cheaper and made it possible to arbitrarily set the parameters of the generated current. It was with the advent of generators that the first power plants and networks began to appear (before that, energy sources were directly at the places of its consumption) - the electric power industry became a separate industry. The first transmission line in history (in the modern sense) was the Laufen - Frankfurt line, which started operating in 1891. The length of the line was 170 km, the voltage was 28.3 kV, the transmitted power was 220 kW. At that time, electricity was used mainly for lighting in large cities. Electric companies were in serious competition with gas companies: electric lighting was superior to gas in a number of technical parameters, but at that time it was significantly more expensive. With the improvement of electrical equipment and the increase in the efficiency of generators, the cost of electricity decreased, and in the end, electric lighting completely replaced gas. Along the way, new areas of application of electric energy appeared: electric lifts, pumps and electric motors were improved. An important stage was the invention of the electric tram: tram systems were large consumers of electrical energy and stimulated the increase in the capacity of power plants. In many cities, the first power stations were built together with tram systems.

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the so-called "war of currents" - a confrontation between industrial manufacturers of direct and alternating currents. Direct and alternating current had both advantages and disadvantages in use. The decisive factor was the possibility of transmission over long distances - AC transmission was realized easier and cheaper, which led to his victory in this "war": nowadays, alternating current is used almost everywhere. Nevertheless, at present there are prospects for widespread use of direct current for long-distance transmission of high power (see High-voltage direct current line).

1.1. History of the Russian power industry

Dynamics of electricity production in Russia in 1992-2008, in billion kWh

The history of the Russian and, perhaps, the world electric power industry dates back to 1891, when the outstanding scientist Mikhail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky carried out the practical transfer of electrical power of about 220 kW over a distance of 175 km. The resulting power line efficiency of 77.4% was sensationally high for such a complex multi-element design. This high efficiency was achieved thanks to the use of a three-phase voltage invented by the scientist himself.

In pre-revolutionary Russia, the capacity of all power plants was only 1.1 million kWh, and the annual electricity generation was 1.9 billion kWh. After the revolution, at the suggestion of V.I. Lenin, the famous GOELRO plan for the electrification of Russia was launched. It provided for the construction of 30 power plants with a total capacity of 1.5 million kW, which was implemented by 1931, and by 1935 it was exceeded 3 times.

In 1940, the total capacity of Soviet power plants amounted to 10.7 million kW, and the annual electricity generation exceeded 50 billion kW * h, which was 25 times higher than the corresponding indicators of 1913. After a break caused by the Great Patriotic War, the electrification of the USSR resumed, reaching a level of output of 90 billion kWh in 1950.

In the 50s of the XX century, such power plants as Tsimlyanskaya, Gyumushskaya, Verkhne-Svirskaya, Mingechaurskaya and others were put into operation. By the mid-60s, the USSR ranked second in the world in electricity generation after the United States.

2. Basic technological processes in the electric power industry

2.1. Electricity generation

Power generation is the process of converting various types of energy into electrical energy in industrial facilities called power plants. Currently, there are the following types of generation:

• Thermal power engineering... In this case, the thermal energy of combustion of organic fuels is converted into electrical energy. Thermal power engineering includes thermal power plants (TPPs), which are of two main types:
  • Condensing (IES, the old abbreviation GRES is also used);
  • Heating (combined heat and power plants, CHP). Cogeneration is the combined production of electricity and heat at the same station;

IES and CHPP have similar technological processes. In both cases, there is a boiler in which fuel is burned and, due to the heat generated, steam is heated under pressure. Then the heated steam is fed to a steam turbine, where its thermal energy is converted into rotational energy. The turbine shaft rotates the rotor of an electric generator - thus the rotational energy is converted into electrical energy, which is supplied to the grid. The fundamental difference between CHP and IES is that part of the steam heated in the boiler goes to the needs of heat supply;

• Nuclear energy... It includes nuclear power plants (NPP). In practice, nuclear power is often considered a subspecies of thermal power generation, since, in general, the principle of electricity generation at nuclear power plants is the same as at thermal power plants. Only in this case, thermal energy is released not during fuel combustion, but during the fission of atomic nuclei in a nuclear reactor. Further, the scheme of electricity production does not fundamentally differ from a TPP: steam is heated in a reactor, enters a steam turbine, etc. Due to some design features of a nuclear power plant, it is unprofitable to use it in combined generation, although some experiments in this direction have been carried out;
• Hydropower... It includes hydroelectric power plants (HPPs). In hydropower, the kinetic energy of water flow is converted into electrical energy. For this purpose, with the help of dams on the rivers, a difference in the levels of the water surface is artificially created (the so-called upper and lower reaches). Under the influence of gravity, water is poured from the upper pool to the lower one through special channels in which water turbines are located, the blades of which are spun by the water flow. The turbine rotates the rotor of the generator. Pumped storage stations (PSPP) are a special type of hydroelectric power station. They cannot be considered generating capacities in their pure form, since they consume almost as much electricity as they generate, however, such stations are very effective in unloading the network during peak hours;
• alternative energy... It includes methods of generating electricity that have a number of advantages compared to the "traditional" ones, but for various reasons have not received sufficient distribution. The main types of alternative energy are:
  • Wind power - the use of kinetic wind energy to generate electricity;
  • Solar energy - obtaining electrical energy from the energy of the sun's rays; The common disadvantages of wind and solar power engineering are the relative low power of the generators and their high cost. Also, in both cases, storage capacities are required at night (for solar energy) and calm (for wind energy) times;
  • Geothermal energy - use of the natural heat of the Earth to generate electrical energy. In fact, geothermal power plants are conventional thermal power plants, where the source of heat for heating steam is not a boiler or a nuclear reactor, but underground sources of natural heat. The disadvantage of such stations is the geographical limitation of their use: geothermal stations are profitable to build only in regions of tectonic activity, that is, where natural heat sources are most accessible;
  • Hydrogen energy - the use of hydrogen as an energy fuel has great prospects: hydrogen has a very high combustion efficiency, its resource is practically unlimited, the combustion of hydrogen is absolutely environmentally friendly (the product of combustion in an oxygen atmosphere is distilled water). However, at the moment hydrogen energy is not able to fully satisfy the needs of mankind due to the high cost of producing pure hydrogen and technical problems of its transportation in large quantities;
  • It is also worth noting alternative types of hydropower: tidal and wave energy. In these cases, the natural kinetic energy of sea tides and wind waves is used, respectively. The proliferation of these types of electricity is hampered by the need to coincide too many factors in the design of a power plant: it is necessary not just the sea coast, but such a coast on which the tides (and sea waves, respectively) would be strong and constant enough. For example, the Black Sea coast is not suitable for the construction of tidal power plants, since the water level differences in the Black Sea at high and low tide are minimal.

2.2. Electricity transmission and distribution

The transmission of electrical energy from power plants to consumers is carried out through electrical networks. The power grid is a naturally monopoly sector of the power industry: the consumer can choose from whom to buy electricity (that is, the power supply company), the power supply company can choose among wholesale suppliers (power producers), however, the network through which electricity is supplied is usually one, and the consumer cannot technically choose the grid company. From a technical point of view, the electrical network is a combination of power transmission lines (PTL) and transformers located at substations.

• Power lines are a metal conductor through which an electric current passes. Nowadays, alternating current is almost universally used. Power supply in the overwhelming majority of cases is three-phase, so the power line, as a rule, consists of three phases, each of which can include several wires. Power transmission lines are structurally divided into air and cable.
  • Overhead transmission lines suspended above the ground at a safe height on special structures called supports. As a rule, the wire on the overhead line does not have surface insulation; insulation is available at the points of attachment to the supports. Overhead lines have lightning protection systems. The main advantage of overhead power transmission lines is their relative cheapness in comparison with cable. Also, maintainability is much better (especially in comparison with brushless cable lines): it is not required to carry out excavation work to replace the wire, and there is no difficulty in visual inspection of the line condition. However, overhead power lines have a number of disadvantages:
    • a wide strip of alienation: it is forbidden to erect any structures and plant trees in the vicinity of power lines; when the line passes through the forest, trees along the entire width of the right-of-way are cut down;
    • insecurity from external influences, for example, falling trees on the line and theft of wires; despite lightning protection devices, overhead lines also suffer from lightning strikes. Due to vulnerability, two circuits are often equipped on the same overhead line: the main and the backup;
    • aesthetic unattractiveness; this is one of the reasons for the almost ubiquitous transition to cable power transmission in urban areas.
  • Cable lines (CL) carried out underground. Electrical cables are of various designs, but common elements can be identified. The core of the cable consists of three conductors (according to the number of phases). The cables have both external and inter-core insulation. Typically, liquid transformer oil or oiled paper acts as an insulator. The conductive core of the cable is usually protected by steel armor. From the outside, the cable is covered with bitumen. There are collector and brushless cable lines. In the first case, the cable is laid in underground concrete channels - collectors. At certain intervals on the line, exits to the surface in the form of hatches are equipped - for the convenience of the penetration of repair teams into the collector. Brushless cable lines are laid directly in the ground. Brushless lines are much cheaper than collector lines during construction, but their operation is more expensive due to the inaccessibility of cable. The main advantage of cable power lines (in comparison with overhead lines) is the absence of a wide right of way. Provided that it is deep enough, various structures (including residential) can be built directly above the collector line. In the case of brushless installation, construction is possible in the immediate vicinity of the line. Cable lines do not spoil the city landscape with their appearance; they are much better protected from external influences than air lines. The disadvantages of cable power lines include the high cost of construction and subsequent operation: even in the case of brushless installation, the estimated cost of a running meter of a cable line is several times higher than the cost of an overhead line of the same voltage class. Cable lines are less accessible for visual observation of their condition (and in the case of brushless installation, they are not available at all), which is also a significant operational disadvantage.

2.3. Electricity consumption

According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2008, global electricity consumption was about 17.4 trillion kWh.

3. Types of activities in the electric power industry

3.1. Operational dispatch control

The system of operational dispatch control in the electric power industry includes a set of measures for the centralized control of technological modes of operation of electric power facilities and power receiving installations of consumers within the Unified Energy System of Russia and technologically isolated territorial electric power systems, carried out by subjects of operational dispatch management authorized to carry out these measures in the procedure established by the Federal Law "On the Electricity". Operational control in the electric power industry is called dispatching, because it is carried out by specialized dispatching services. Dispatching control is carried out centrally and continuously throughout the day under the guidance of the operational managers of the power system - dispatchers.

3.2. Energosbyt

Notes

1. 1 2 Federal Law of the Russian Federation of March 26, 2003 N 35-FZ "On Electricity" - www.rg.ru/oficial/doc/federal_zak/35-03.shtm
2. Under the general editorship of Corresponding Member RAS E.V. Ametistova Volume 2 edited by Prof. A.P. Burman and Prof. V.A. Stroev // Fundamentals of modern energy. In 2 volumes. - Moscow: MPEI Publishing House, 2008. - ISBN 978 5 383 00163 9
3. M. I. Kuznetsov Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering. - Moscow: Higher School, 1964.
4. U.S. Energy Information Administration - International Energy Statistics - tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid\u003d2&pid\u003d2&aid\u003d2 (English).
5. Operational management in power systems / E. V. Kalentionok, V. G. Prokopenko, V. T. Fedin. - Minsk .: Higher school, 2007

Electricity is a basic industry, the development of which is an indispensable condition for the development of the economy and other spheres of society. The world produces about 13,000 billion kWh, of which only the USA accounts for up to 25%. Over 60% of the world's electricity is produced at thermal power plants (in the USA, Russia and China - 70-80%), about 20% at hydroelectric power plants, 17% at nuclear power plants (in France and Belgium - 60%, Sweden and Switzerland - 40-45%).

The richest in electricity per capita are Norway (28 thousand kWh per year), Canada (19 thousand), Sweden (17 thousand).

The electric power industry, together with the fuel industries, including the exploration, production, processing and transportation of energy sources, as well as electric energy itself, forms the most important fuel and energy complex (FEC) for the economy of any country. About 40% of all primary energy resources in the world are spent on electricity generation. In a number of countries, the main part of the fuel and energy complex belongs to the state (France, Italy, etc.), but in many countries, mixed capital plays the main role in the fuel and energy complex.

The electric power industry deals with the production, transportation and distribution of electricity. The peculiarity of the electric power industry is that its products cannot be accumulated for subsequent use: the production of electricity at each moment of time must correspond to the size of consumption, taking into account the needs of the power plants themselves and losses in the networks. Therefore, communications in the electric power industry have constancy, continuity and are carried out instantly.

The electric power industry has a great impact on the territorial organization of the economy: it allows the development of fuel and energy resources in remote eastern and northern regions; the development of high-voltage trunk lines contributes to a freer location of industrial enterprises; large hydroelectric power plants attract energy-intensive industries; in the eastern regions, the electric power industry is a branch of specialization and serves as the basis for the formation of territorial-production complexes.

It is believed that for the normal development of the economy, the growth in electricity production must outpace the growth in production in all other sectors. Most of the generated electricity is consumed by industry. In terms of electricity production (1,015.3 billion kWh in 2007), Russia ranks fourth after the United States, Japan and China.

In terms of the scale of electricity production, the Central Economic Region (17.8% of all-Russian production), Eastern Siberia (14.7%), the Urals (15.3%) and Western Siberia (14.3%) stand out. Moscow and the Moscow Region, the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous District, the Irkutsk Region, the Krasnoyarsk Territory, and the Sverdlovsk Region are the leaders among the subjects of the Russian Federation in terms of electricity generation. Moreover, the power industry of the Center and the Urals is based on imported fuel, while the Siberian regions operate on local energy resources and transmit electricity to other regions.

The electric power industry of modern Russia is mainly represented by thermal power plants (Fig. 2) operating on natural gas, coal and fuel oil; in recent years, the share of natural gas in the fuel balance of power plants has been increasing. About 1/5 of domestic electricity is generated by hydroelectric power plants and 15% by nuclear power plants.

Thermal power plants operating on low-quality coal tend to gravitate towards the places where it is mined. For power plants using fuel oil, it is optimal to locate them near refineries. Gas-fired power plants, due to the relatively low cost of its transportation, mainly gravitate towards the consumer. And first of all, power plants of large and largest cities are converted to gas, since it is a cleaner fuel in terms of the environment than coal and fuel oil. CHPPs (producing both heat and electricity) gravitate towards the consumer regardless of the fuel on which they operate (the coolant quickly cools down during transmission over a distance).

The largest thermal power plants with a capacity of over 3.5 million kW each are Surgutskaya (in the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug), Reftinskaya (in the Sverdlovskaya Oblast) and Kostromskaya GRES. Kirishskaya (near St. Petersburg), Ryazanskaya (Central region), Novocherkasskaya and Stavropolskaya (North Caucasus), Zainskaya (Volga region), Reftinskaya and Troitskaya (Ural), Nizhnevartovskaya and Berezovskaya in Siberia have a capacity of more than 2 million kW.

Geothermal power plants that use the deep heat of the Earth are tied to an energy source. The Pauzhetskaya and Mutnovskaya GTPPs operate in Kamchatka in Russia.

Hydroelectric power plants are very efficient sources of electricity. They use renewable resources, are easy to manage and have a very high efficiency (over 80%). Therefore, the cost of the electricity they produce is 5-6 times lower than that of thermal power plants.

It is most economical to build hydroelectric power plants (HPPs) on mountain rivers with a large difference in altitude, while on flat rivers, to maintain a constant water pressure and reduce the dependence on seasonal fluctuations in water volumes, the creation of large reservoirs is required. For a more complete use of the hydropower potential, cascades of hydroelectric power stations are being built. In Russia, hydropower cascades have been created on the Volga and Kama, Angara and Yenisei. The total capacity of the Volga-Kama cascade is 11.5 million kW. And it includes 11 power plants. The most powerful are Volzhskaya (2.5 million kW) and Volgograd (2.3 million kW). There are also Saratov, Cheboksary, Votkinskaya, Ivankovskaya, Uglichskaya, etc.

Even more powerful (22 million kW) is the Angara-Yenisei cascade, which includes the country's largest hydroelectric power plants: Sayan (6.4 million kW), Krasnoyarsk (6 million kW), Bratsk (4.6 million kW), Ust-Ilimskaya (4.3 million kW).

The future belongs to the use of unconventional energy sources - wind, tidal energy, the Sun and the Earth's internal energy. In our country, there are only two tidal stations (in the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk and on the Kola Peninsula) and one geothermal station in Kamchatka.

Nuclear power plants (NPPs) use highly transportable fuel. Considering that 1 kg of uranium replaces 2.5 thousand tons of coal, it is more expedient to locate nuclear power plants near the consumer, primarily in areas without other types of fuel. The world's first nuclear power plant was built in 1954 in Obninsk (Kaluga region). Now in Russia there are 8 nuclear power plants, of which the most powerful are Kursk and Balakovskaya (Saratov region), 4 million kW each. Kola, Leningradskaya, Smolenskaya, Tverskaya, Novovoronezhskaya, Rostovskaya, Beloyarskaya also operate in the western regions of the country. In Chukotka - Bilibinskaya NPP.

The most important trend in the development of the electric power industry is the unification of power plants in power systems that produce, transmit and distribute electricity between consumers. They represent a territorial combination of different types of power plants operating for a common load. Combining power plants into power systems contributes to the ability to choose the most economical load mode for different types of power plants; in conditions of a long state, the existence of standard time and the mismatch of peak loads in certain parts of such power systems, it is possible to maneuver the production of electricity in time and space and toss it as needed in opposite directions.

The Unified Energy System (UES) of Russia is currently in operation. It includes numerous power plants in the European part and Siberia, which operate in parallel, in a single mode, concentrating more than 4/5 of the total power of the country's power plants. Small isolated power systems operate in the regions of Russia east of Lake Baikal.

The energy strategy of Russia for the next decade provides for the further development of electrification through the economically and environmentally sound use of thermal power plants, nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and non-traditional renewable types of energy, improving the safety and reliability of operating nuclear power units.

13 .Light industry

Light industry - a set of specialized industries producing mainly consumer goods from various types of raw materials. Light industry occupies one of the important places in the production of the gross national product and plays a significant role in the country's economy.

Light industry carries out both the primary processing of raw materials and the release of finished products. Light industry enterprises also produce products for industrial, technical and special purposes, which are used in furniture, aviation, automotive, chemical, electrical, food and other industries, in agriculture, in law enforcement agencies, in transport and in healthcare. One of the features of the light industry is the quick return on investment. The technological features of the industry allow a quick change of the assortment of products at a minimum cost, which ensures high mobility of production.

The light industry unites several subsectors:

1.Textile.

1.Cotton.

2.Woolen.

3.Silk.

4. Linen.

5. Hemp-jute.

6. Knitted.

7. Felting and felt.

8. Net knitting.

2.Sewing.

3.Leather.

4. Fur.

5.Shoes.

Light industry unites a group of industries that provide the population with consumer goods (fabrics, footwear, clothing), as well as produce industrial products and cultural and household goods (televisions, refrigerators, etc.). The light industry has close ties with agriculture, chemical industry and mechanical engineering. They supply it with raw materials - cotton, natural and artificial leather, dyes, as well as machines and equipment.

The leading branch of light industry is textile. It is the largest in terms of production volume and the number of employees employed in it. It includes the production of all types of fabrics, knitwear, carpets, etc.

Most fabrics are made from chemical fibers. The largest producer of them is the United States, outstripping the closest competitors - India and Japan - by almost three times. They are followed by the "Asian Tigers" - the Republic of Korea and Taiwan. Most of the cotton fabrics are produced by developing countries. India is the undisputed leader here, followed by the United States and China. The production of silk fabrics is traditional for Asian countries, woolen - for such developed countries as Great Britain, the USA, Italy. They are also the main exporters of these fabrics. Linen fabrics are produced least of all in the world. The leaders in this industry are Russia, Poland, Belarus and France.

Various carpets are popular in everyday life, the mass production of which is developed in the USA and India. But the most valuable carpets are handmade. They are supplied to the world market by Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey.

In comparison with other branches of light industry, the geography of the textile industry has undergone the greatest changes. Over the past decades, the share of developed countries in the world textile production has significantly decreased. In developing countries, on the contrary, the rate of development of the industry is increasing. Along with the long-standing leaders - India and Egypt - textile production is rapidly developing in the countries of Southeast Asia, which have a cheap labor force.

The clothing and haberdashery industries are closely related to the textile industry. Ready-to-wear sewing is confidently moving to the east: India and China compete on equal terms with European countries in the production of mass-market clothing. However, even today Rome is the center of mass, and Paris is the center of "high" fashion.

The leather and footwear industry is concentrated mainly in developed countries. The United States and Italy are ahead. Each of these countries produces almost 600 million pairs of shoes annually. China and Taiwan took the first place in the export of footwear, producing cheap and relatively high-quality footwear, including many sports footwear.

Fur industry enterprises produce very expensive products from natural raw materials. At one time in Canada, instead of money, beaver skins were in circulation, and in Siberia, sable fur. Four countries - Russia, the USA, Germany and China - have captured almost the entire world fur market. Greece plays a special role, where fur trimmings from all over the world are processed. In many countries, cheap faux fur clothes are made.

Jewelry production, which includes the processing of precious metals and stones, is an important branch of the light industry. This industry is developed in the USA, India, Israel, Western European countries. The Netherlands is called the "diamond center" of the world - most of the diamonds mined on Earth are cut here.

The production of toys is very widespread in the world. It is developed in almost every country, but three leaders stand out - the USA, China (Hong Kong) and Japan.

According to the peculiarities of location, light industry enterprises are divided into groups. The first group includes those who are engaged in the primary processing of raw materials and are guided by the sources of raw materials. The second group includes those who produce finished products. They are located near the consumer. The third group includes enterprises in the placement of which both the raw material base and the consumer are taken into account.

For light industry territorial specialization is less pronounced in comparison with other industries, since almost every region has one or another of its enterprises. However, in Russia, specialized units and regions can be distinguished, especially in textile industry, giving a certain range of products. For example, Ivanovo and Tver regions specialize in the production of cotton products. The Central Economic Region specializes in the production of products from all sectors of the textile industry. industry. But most often the sub-sectors of light industry are complementary to the economic complex of the regions, providing only the internal needs of the regions.

Factors of location of enterprises easy industry varied, but the main ones can be distinguished.

1. The raw material factor, which mainly affects the location of enterprises for the primary processing of raw materials (for example, flax processing factories are located in areas of flax production, wool washing enterprises - in sheep-breeding areas, enterprises for primary processing of leather - near large meat processing plants).

2. Population, ie, the consumer factor. Light finished products industry less transportable compared to semi-finished products. For example, it is cheaper to supply compressed raw cotton than cotton fabrics.

3. The factor of labor resources, providing for their significant size and qualifications, since all branches of light industry laborious. Historically, light industries industry predominantly female labor is used, therefore, it is necessary to take into account the possibilities of using both female and male labor in the regions (that is, to develop easy industry in areas where heavy industry is concentrated, to create appropriate production in regions where light industry).

In the past, the provision of fuel and energy resources played a significant role in the placement, since the textile and footwear industries are fuel-intensive. Currently, this factor is considered to be of secondary importance due to the development of the power transmission line network, oil and gas pipelines.

Raw material base of light industry Russia is quite developed, it provides a significant part of the needs of enterprises in flax fiber, wool, chemical fiber and threads, fur and leather raw materials.

The main supplier of natural raw materials for light industry - Agriculture.