Strengthening the policy of reform and opening up. Marxist interpretation of the policy of reform and opening up

The most important component of the Chinese economic reform is the policy of external openness, that is, the transition from an internally oriented to an externally oriented policy.

After 90 years of isolation, in 1978 the Chinese government adopted an outward-looking economic development strategy. As an important part of the entire Chinese economic reform, the policy of opening up has pushed the rapid development of the Chinese economy.

The policy of external openness, the development of an economy integrated into the outside world was not only important for the implementation of modernization in China, but also serves as an example for other developing countries. At the same time, it should be borne in mind that at the beginning of the reforms, China did not have a detailed foreign economic strategy.

External openness policy

China, as one of the countries with the earliest developed civilization, has historically had extensive economic ties with various countries of the world. However, starting in the 16th century, the declining Ming dynasty began to pursue a closed policy. Especially with the coming to power of the Qing dynasty, China fenced itself off from the outside world, introducing a ban on trade relations with foreign states. For centuries, isolation made China poor and backward; and the disintegration of the feudal system, which took place over these two or three hundred years in Western Europe, the formation of an internal market in all capitalist countries and the creation of an international market strongly stimulated the development of productive forces; which was in stark contrast to China's stagnation. After the founding of the PRC, on the one hand, individual countries carried out a blockade of China; later, the spoiled relations with the USSR introduced a blockade of China by the socialist camp; on the other hand, the Chinese themselves, under the influence of the theory of socialist economics, believed that the introduction of a monopoly on foreign trade and a strict import policy was in the interests of the state. During the period of the "great cultural revolution", the "gang of four" promoted a policy of isolation as "patriotism" and "revolutionary policy of Marxism", much during this period was defined as "admiration for foreignism" and "national betrayal", as a result, China fenced itself off from the outside world and carried out self-isolation.

After the third plenum of the XI CPC Central Committee, the Chinese leadership realized that being closed from the outside world could only hinder the modernization of the Chinese economy. The experience of the East Asian region in the development of foreign trade and stimulation of economic modernization on this basis was studied. These countries, including Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea, have adopted an outwardly oriented development strategy, which spurred rapid economic growth. Based on this experience, the Chinese government has decided to pursue a course of external openness.

In 1978, China is a backward country with a large population and a low level of economic development: China's agriculture was mainly based on manual labor, and most of the technologies in industry were outdated. In general, the role of technological progress in the economy was only 20%, while in developed countries it exceeded 60%. One of the reasons that led to the backwardness of China's industry and agriculture is the isolation from the outside world, lack of understanding of the development trends of world science and technology, refusal of international relations and cooperation. It was necessary to carry out a structural modernization of the existing enterprises, to increase their economic efficiency. Lack of funds is an important factor limiting China's economic growth. According to experts, based on the ratio of agricultural and industrial fixed assets to GDP in 1980, as well as the relationship between agriculture and industry, in order to quadruple the GDP of 710 billion yuan, it was necessary to increase fixed assets by 1.55 trillion yuan. But the level of national income before 2000 could provide only 800 billion yuan, that is, another 40% of the funds were not enough. At the same time, industries such as science, education, energy and transport also needed large investments. In order to make up for this huge shortage of funds, it was necessary to actively use foreign capital and, more importantly, advanced technology for modernization. There is evidence that foreign enterprises account for three quarters of new technologies China purchases.

Deng Xiaoping, correctly assessing the world development at that time, pointed out that in order to modernize China, it is necessary to be able to receive international assistance and learn from external openness. He stated, “The policy of openness is China's hope. No country can develop, isolating itself from the whole world, without strengthening international ties, without attracting the advanced experience of developed countries, the achievements of advanced science and technology and foreign capital. "

Note that back in 1975 Deng Xiaoping pointed out the need to attract new technology and equipment, expand exports and imports. It was necessary to strive to export more products in order to receive new equipment in exchange, thanks to which to accelerate technical transformations and increase labor productivity. Attracting foreign advanced technology became the starting point of development.

"Only on condition of external openness can the market, international and domestic resources be fully utilized, the distribution of resources can be improved, scientific and technological progress can be promoted, economic efficiency increased, and the development of the Chinese economy accelerated," the Chinese reformers reasoned. Only in this case it will be possible to actively participate in international economic cooperation and competition, to show the advantages of the Chinese economy, to develop an open economy, to ensure that the domestic and foreign economies complement each other, continuously increasing the country's international competitiveness.

External economic openness is not a short-term, but a long-term policy that will not change for at least 50-70 years. When China achieves its strategic goals, it will all the more not have to change, and if it does, then only in the direction of even greater openness.

Exercising China's external openness is a sequential process of solving problems as they arise. At the same time, Deng Xiaoping from the very beginning worked out certain elements of China's external openness policy.

Deng Xiaoping's reasoning was as follows: “The economic and technical level of the developed countries is high, they have a sufficient amount of funds. And developing countries are poor or underdeveloped, to develop their economies and get rid of poverty, they need to attract funds and technology from developed countries. " Deng Xiaoping said: "If the south does not develop, the marketing of capital and products of the north will be very limited, the further impoverishment of the south may lead to the fact that the north will not have a sales market." Therefore, such a mutual need for each other between developed and developing countries has provided the opportunity for the implementation of their mutual openness. Deng Xiaoping spoke of China's comprehensive external openness: “China is open to developed countries, but more important is openness to third world countries. Third world countries have a large population, lots of land and abundant resources, in the field of technology, each country has its own strengths, we can provide mutual assistance and cooperation in many areas.

This will help economic development and overcome difficulties in each of the countries. " Although China is large and all industries are represented in it, it still cannot produce all the products it needs, and sometimes, if it can, the cost is very high, so it is necessary, according to the principle of comparative advantage, to focus on the global market in order to obtain the greatest benefit. As for the openness of China, the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, Deng Xiaoping believed that the economy and technologies in the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe are more developed than in China, and have their own characteristics, and China needs to borrow them.

Deng Xiaoping noted. implementation of the policy of external openness does not mean openness only for such developed countries as the USA, Japan and the countries of Western Europe. Openness to these countries is just one side. The other side is cooperation between China and the countries of Southeast Asia. And one more side is openness for the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. China was open to all countries in the world. This strategy of comprehensive openness was in line with global trends and was of great strategic importance.

A feature of China's economic reform is the phased-in of external openness. For the implementation of external openness, it was necessary to prepare certain conditions. Since at the initial stage of the reform, the command system of management could not be transformed into a market economic system in one step, and since conditions such as geographic location, natural resources, transport and energy supply varied in different regions, and economic technologies developed unevenly, in accordance with the gradualness of the reform, the implementation of external openness gradually spread from south to north. The first step in the policy of external openness was the approval of the CPC Central Committee in January 1979 of "special policy and flexible measures" in relation to Guangdong and Fujian provinces. The second step was the adoption in 1980 of the decision to successively create special economic zones (SEZs) of Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou and Xiamen. The third step is the approval in 1983 of decisions on the creation of a free economic zone in Hainan. Then in 1988, Hainan became the first fully open province in China. The fourth step is the approval in 1984 of the introduction of an openness policy in 14 coastal port cities. The fifth step is the creation after 1985 of the coastal open economic region, the formation of open economic regions in the Yangtze and Zhujiang delta, the Xiamen region south of the Minjian River, Zhangzhou and the Quanzhou region. The sixth step is the implementation, since 1992, of a policy of external openness in the administrative centers of the provinces located on the inland continent, in the largest cities and coastal regions. In a number of large and medium-sized cities, 15 duty-free zones, 49 zones of technical and economic development and 53 state zones for the development of high-tech industries have been created. The seventh step is the opening of the western regions of China in 2000. In 2000-2003. in the western regions, 36 pilot projects have been launched with an investment of 600 billion yuan. In 2000, Shaanxi Province began the creation of a state high-tech development zone (China's Western Silicon Valley).

Thanks to the experience of the policy of external openness in China, a special structure of openness has been formed: special economic zones, open coastal cities, coastal open economic regions, open cities, such as the administrative centers of provinces located on the inland continent, inland regions. Openness to the outside world spread from the seaside to the internal regions of the country, after China's accession to the WTO, regional openness is increasingly becoming the openness of the entire country.

The main component of the openness policy is attracting foreign investment. Foreign investment has made a multifaceted contribution to the development of the Chinese economy. First, since the early 1980s. foreign investment has become one of the main sources of capital for the development of industrial enterprises focused on exporting Chinese products abroad.

Foreign investment has boosted Chinese exports. By 1993, foreign-owned enterprises accounted for 37% of China's exports. The contribution of export production to the growth of the PRC's GDP over two decades of reforms was 21%, and at the turn of the century 45% of exports were provided by enterprises with foreign capital, and their share in high-tech exports was $ 30 billion, or 81%. By 2000, about half of exports were provided by enterprises with foreign capital.

Second, joint ventures have accelerated the adoption of modern technology in China. At the initial stage of reforms, technology transfer was one of the main conditions for the admission of foreign investors to the Chinese market. With the help of foreign investments, joint ventures were able to update their equipment and technologies, and, as a result, increase the competitiveness of their products.

Third, foreign investment has accompanied the emergence of a new generation of managers in the PRC. The main role of managers in a planned economy was the fulfillment of the plan, in most cases, without considering the efficiency, quality and competitiveness of products. At the beginning of the reforms, the PRC experienced an acute shortage of managers with the skills to meet new market requirements. Attraction of foreign investments, establishment of foreign and joint ventures have created conditions for the preparation and development of a new class of managers.

Fourth, these enterprises have provided new jobs. By 2005, the number of people employed in foreign or joint ventures reached 17.5 million people. For example, by 1997, Tianjin had attracted $ 16 billion in foreign investment, and about 10,000 enterprises with foreign capital were founded in the city, providing jobs for about 320,000 Tianjin residents.

Fifth, the experiment of creating territories open to foreign investment provided the CCP with a compelling argument for spreading the new experience throughout China.

The forms of China's use of foreign capital are mainly FDI, foreign loans and, in recent years, international leasing, countervailing trade and foreign portfolio investments (IPO). According to the IMF for the period 1979-2001. China received from abroad $ 568.4 billion, of which $ 393.5 billion was FDI (69.2%), $ 147.2 billion - foreign loans (25.9 %%), 27.7 billion dollars - other forms of foreign capital investment (4.9%). For the period 1979-2004. China practically used $ 743.6 billion of foreign capital and, in particular, $ 560.4 billion of FDI (75.4%). In recent years (2005-2006), China has received about 6% of world FDI, and they accounted for about 77% of the total flow of foreign investment in 2005.

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Interesting video about the development of China

By the end of 1976, the People's Republic of China found itself in a state of deep socio-political and economic crisis. The cause of the crisis was the militaristic great-power course of Mao Zedong and his supporters, the voluntarist policy of the Great Leap Forward, and the Maoist Cultural Revolution. According to the Chinese press, 1966-1976. became a “lost decade” that threw the country back, putting the national economy on the brink of collapse.

The country's economy was almost completely destroyed, hundreds of thousands of people were living below the poverty line. The “class struggle” declared during the “cultural revolution” further exacerbated the accumulated socio-political and economic contradictions. The social policy of Mao Zedong led to a split in society - a phenomenon directly opposite to the strengthening of political and moral unity characteristic of a socialist society.

The leadership that came to power after the death of Mao Zedong (September 9, 1976), headed by Chairman of the CPC Central Committee and Premier of the State Council of the PRC Hua Guofeng, an adherent of the "cultural revolution", announced the continuation of Mao Zedong's course. The process of reforming the Maoist leadership, which became necessary, was accompanied by a struggle between groups for dominance in the party and state apparatus. The leading positions were gradually taken by the Maoist-pragmatic group headed by Deng Xiaoping, whose rehabilitation took place in June 1977 (a year after his second displacement) at the III plenum of the tenth convocation of the CPC Central Committee. Deng Xiaoping was reinstated in all posts - Deputy Chairman of the CPC Central Committee, Deputy Chairman of the Military Council and Chief of the General Staff of the PLA, Deputy Premier of the State Council of the People's Republic of China. Hua Guofeng was appointed Chairman of the CPC Central Committee. However, at the end of the 70s, Deng Xiaoping became the leader of the party and the country.

The basis for the practical development of Deng Xiaoping's reformist ideas was the course of "four modernizations" approved in the mid-1970s, which set the goal of transformation in four areas - agriculture, industry, army, science and technology. The "four modernizations" formula reflects the material content of the reform. If we talk about the ideological and political line, then its essence is represented by "four basic principles": the socialist path of development, the democratic dictatorship of the people, the leadership of the Communist Party, Marxism-Leninism, the ideas of Mao Zedong.

At the III Plenum of the CPC Central Committee of the eleventh convocation, held on December 18-22, 1978, at the initiative of Deng Xiaoping and his associates, a historic decision was made to abandon the theory of "the continuation of the revolution under the dictatorship of the proletariat" and the political orientation to wage the "class struggle" as the main task , and shift the center of gravity of party work to the implementation of modernization. Accordingly, a new policy of "reforms and opening up" of the PRC was announced and approved.

Thus, reforms and an open policy were declared the main means of modernization. The reforms are aimed at bringing production relations in line with the tasks of developing the productive forces so that production relations do not become an inhibiting factor for the country's development. And an open policy is designed to include the PRC in the process of globalization of the economy and other spheres of life of the human community, actively attract foreign capital, use the achievements of science and technology, management experience in order, ultimately, to increase China's global competitiveness.

The reform process was described by Deng Xiaoping as a "second revolution" after 1949, but a revolution not aimed at breaking the old superstructure and against any social class, but a revolution in the sense of "revolutionary renewal of socialism on its own basis through self-improvement."

The goal of socialist modernization is to bring China by the middle of the 21st century to the level of average developed states in terms of per capita production and, on this basis, to achieve the general welfare of its citizens. The path of modernization is the accelerated growth of economic potential, its qualitative renewal and increased efficiency based on the development of scientific and technical potential, proceeding from the fact that science is the "main productive force".

From the very beginning of the development of the country's modernization strategy, Deng Xiaoping refused to dogmatically follow the canons of socialist construction adopted in the USSR and "searched for the construction of his own model of socialism with Chinese characteristics." The essence of the "national specificity" was seen by the reformer politician in the historically formed and objectively determined socio-economic backwardness of the country, the lack of arable land and other necessary resources to ensure normal living conditions and development of a country with a billion people. Taking into account the fact that overcoming China's backwardness will take a long time, a fundamental theoretical position was adopted that the PRC is at the initial stage of socialism, which will last until the middle of the 21st century.

Thus, in order to ensure the main internal condition for the normal course of reforms - political stability, the country's political life was built in accordance with the "four basic principles" put forward by Deng Xiaoping: follow the socialist path, adhere to the dictatorship of the proletariat, the leadership of the CPC, Marxism-Leninism and the ideas of Mao Zedong ... No deviations from this line towards political and ideological liberalization were allowed.

However, Deng Xiaoping succeeded in starting a full-scale implementation of the modernization program only after creating the necessary political conditions for this. Economic reform, according to Deng Xiaoping's theory, is impossible without reform of the political system.

A special place in carrying out the reform of the political system, and in general in the process of modernization, was given to the ruling party as a guarantor of ensuring social and political stability, without which it seemed impossible to successfully pursue a course of socialist modernization. In this regard, questions of party building, strengthening party discipline and strengthening internal party control were constantly in the center of attention of the CPC leadership. The development of a comprehensive legislative and regulatory framework and its implementation, the transformation of China into a modern rule-of-law state "governed by law" was of the utmost importance in the reform of the political system.

The content of the reform of the political system, aimed at the development of democratization, was seen in the development and strengthening of the existing system of representative bodies of power (congresses of people's representatives, etc.), the expansion of their controlling functions and democratic principles in their activities, the simplification and reduction of the administrative apparatus, a clear division powers between party and administrative bodies, between the center and localities, etc.

The human factor was of prime importance in Deng Xiaoping's theory of modernization. The program of upbringing the "new man" has been implemented since the early 1980s as part of the course for the creation of a socialist spiritual culture, covering the entire spiritual sphere of the life of Chinese society - ideology, culture itself, morality, law - and aimed at the formation of a modern cultural and civilizational environment. without which modernization is unthinkable.

In the process of developing a strategy for the modernization of China, Deng Xiaoping revised the previous concept of the development of the modern world, which boiled down to the fact that it was based on the world war and revolution. According to Deng Xiaoping's theory, the main trends that determine the state of modern international relations are peace and development, the preservation of which is an external guarantee of the successful modernization of the PRC. Finally, an integral part of Deng Xiaoping's modernization program is the completion of the process of uniting the country according to the "one state - two systems" formula, which provides for the preservation of the existing capitalist system in Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan after their reunification with the PRC.

Comrade Deng Xiaoping, a veteran of the revolution, a leading politician in the PRC, was named the "chief architect of Chinese reforms" at the opening of the 13th Congress of the Chinese Communist Party on October 25, 1987 at the opening of the XIII Congress of the Chinese Communist Party.

During an inspection trip to the south of China in early 1992, Deng Xiaoping draws conclusions about the need to further accelerate reforms and development based on expanding the scope of market relations and proposes three criteria to determine the effectiveness of reforms and an open policy: do the reforms contribute to the development of productive forces? whether they strengthen the complex state power, whether they contribute to raising the living standards of the people.

Developing the reform, the leadership of the PRC, headed by Deng Xiaoping, made a theoretical "breakthrough" at the Third Plenum of the Fourteenth CPC Central Committee in 1993, announcing the unification of the market economy with socialism.

At the 15th Congress of the Communist Party of China in 1997, a provision on the leading role of "Deng Xiaoping's theory" at the initial stage of socialism was included in the party charter. It is declared a new stage in the development of Marxism in China, the second theoretical achievement after the "ideas of Mao Zedong", "the continuation and development of the ideas of Mao Zedong," a scientific system for building socialism with Chinese characteristics.

The current leaders of the PRC not only emphasize their adherence to the ideas of the "reform architect", but also develop them as new problems arise. China's new leaders are trying to make the country's development more comprehensive and coordinated, without abandoning the "reform and opening" policy outlined by Deng Xiaoping.

Summing up the above, the following should be noted: the Maoist "cultural revolution" cost the country dearly and brought the economy of the PRC to a crisis state. Mao Zedong's experiments have clearly demonstrated that the cruel (basically Stalinist) model of socialist construction does not produce the desired results and is destructive. Returning to power in 1977, Deng Xiaoping embarked on a policy of modernizing China. A turning point in the history of the PRC was the holding in December 1978 of the III Plenum of the CPC Central Committee of the eleventh convocation, which became the starting point for the country's modernization process. The most important merit of Deng Xiaoping is that his policy was entirely subordinated to the task of building up comprehensive state power and improving the life of the people.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND MODERNITY

EXPERIENCE OF FOREIGN MODERNIZATION

V.G. GELBRAS

30 years of China's opening up reforms

In December 1978, the third plenum of the eleventh CPC Central Committee adopted a decision that ushered in an era of "reform and opening up." The new policy was carried out gradually, in the course of searching for ways and forms of its implementation, realizing achievements and omissions, overcoming problems and contradictions that arose at each new stage in solving the assigned tasks. It was necessary, sometimes significantly, to change many views and attitudes, to clarify the prevailing ideas about the processes taking place in the country and in the world. Over the years, China has undergone tremendous changes that have been deservedly called "historic" within the country and beyond.

Stages of the country's socio-economic renewal

The first stage covered 1979-1984. His main achievement is that the aforementioned plenum of the Central Committee of the CPC announced the completion of the "cultural revolution" and the transition to solving urgent problems of the country's development. The authorities ensured the normalization of the situation in all areas of public life after the destructive "cultural revolution", but the plenum did not envisage any innovative measures, not to mention revolutionary transformations. It proclaimed only a categorical rejection of the ideological and political dogmas of the party during the "cultural revolution". The rise of the productive forces is at the center of activity. The economic policy of the party was conceived in strict accordance with the traditional norms of the planned economy. At the same time, the communiqué of the plenum contained phrases that anticipated the scale and depth of subsequent transformations, "like a revolution."

The confirmation of the strategic goal of the country's development was of great importance. The plenum demanded, according to the Xinhua News Agency on December 24, 1978, "in complete unanimity, to further develop a political environment of stability and cohesion, to immediately mobilize and, straining all forces and energy, to make a new great campaign in the name of transforming our country by the end of this century. into a modern socialist state. " Deng Xiaoping was more radical: "We must reach and surpass the advanced world level by the end of this century, that is, within 22 years, go the path that others have traveled in 40-50 years and even more" (Xinhua News Agency, March 20, 1978) ...

Meanwhile, a spontaneous peasant movement began in the country. According to official data, 250 million peasants were starving at that time, and probably no less

Gelabras Vilya Gdalievich - Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor of the Institute of Asian and African Countries, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, Chief Researcher at the Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

it was necessary to lead a half-starved existence. The peasantry sought to abandon the equalizing distribution of the results of labor within the framework of the "communes" and a transition to an equalizing distribution of land. For a long time, the authorities could not agree with this demand. It was very much contrary to the Marxist-Leninist dogmas and ideology of the party. However, convinced of the positive results of the peasant initiative, in 1984 the party announced the assignment of contract land plots to peasant households. "Communes", "big", "small" brigades were disbanded. Thus, the old ideas about "people's communes" as a ready-made form of transition to communism were consigned to oblivion.

Volost authorities were restored. Instead of the land ownership granted as a result of the agrarian reform, the peasants were given the right to manage contracted land plots. The land itself outside the cities was declared the property of the "community of villagers". This concept has not yet been concretized. The preservation of collective ownership of land made it possible to declare the courtyard contract part of the socialist economy.

The second stage covered 1984-1992. In 1984, the strategic task of economic growth was specified. By the end of the century, it is planned to achieve a 4-fold increase in GDP and ensure China's entry into the world's leading economies.

The Third Plenary Session of the Twelfth CPC Central Committee makes a decision on economic reform. They proclaim a transition to the creation of a planned-market system of economy in the country under the motto "the plan is the main thing, the market is auxiliary". In practice, contract forms of economic ties have begun to be widely used in the financial system, in relations between government authorities and enterprises, between enterprises and other structures of the real sector of the economy. Small and medium-sized enterprises are allowed to lease, transfer to the ownership of the labor collective, on contract terms to private individuals.

The rights of state enterprises have been expanded. After the fulfillment of the plan, they are allowed to produce above-planned products and independently sell them on the market. A "two-level" system of prices has been introduced: state, planned, and contractual, market prices. These regulations have given rise to a variety of relationships between governments and administrations, manufacturers, sales and distribution organizations and consumers, but at the same time - the proliferation of speculative and illegal business transactions that contributed to the rapid rise in prices.

The state set a course for a sharp increase in economic growth rates. The rise of agricultural production, the collection in 1984 of the maximum volumes of basic crops became a powerful factor in revitalizing the entire economic life of the country, a noticeable increase in the standard of living of the population, primarily the peasantry. A large number of complete equipment is imported into the country, which has made it possible to create completely new branches of heavy and light industry. In 1987, three years ahead of schedule, the GDP was doubled in comparison with 1980. This achieved the first important strategic goal.

To ensure the accelerated growth of production, the state sharply increases capital investments in fixed capital, introduces an excessive amount of liquidity into the economy, which causes a sharp rise in prices. As a result, in 1989 unrest broke out among the population. The largest demonstration at Tiananmen Square in Beijing is being suppressed with the help of the army. 1989-1992 became years of confusion for the authorities, slowing down economic transformations, putting things in order in the economy and resolving problems that arose.

The third stage covers 1992-2002. In 1992, there was a refusal to focus on the "planned commodity" economy. The country is moving towards building a "socialist market economy" and implementing a strategy of its export orientation. The painstaking work to modernize the foundations of the economic activities of enterprises and their relationship with the management bodies and the financial system begins. The inflow of foreign capital into the country is being stimulated. Areas for

production of export products, where foreign direct investment is concentrated. The overwhelming part of national investment is directed to these regions. The orientation of the activities of enterprises to meet the needs of the foreign market, first of all, has caused many changes in the system of mastering new equipment and technologies, in the in-house management. A system for studying the world market has emerged. The export orientation of the economy is being broadly interpreted under the slogan "Go outside!" Capital export begins.

The export orientation of the economy required the concentration of gigantic funds on the creation and expansion of export production areas. Its increase led to the transformation of exports into one of the main pillars of economic growth. At the same time, there was a delay in economic growth in the inner regions, aimed at meeting domestic demand and the domestic market. The rise in incomes of the population has slowed down. The authorities limited their support to agricultural production, villages, peasants to the limit, increasing the withdrawal of resources from the agrarian sector.

In 1995, five years earlier than the target date, GDP was doubled again. Thus, the next strategic goal of economic growth was realized. The country is developing a system of enterprises owned by the state and non-state owners. There is a formation of private entrepreneurship. The system of lifelong employment is being destroyed. State-owned enterprises, in order to increase production efficiency, have begun to relieve unnecessary personnel. It became necessary to create systems of social insurance and social security, to eliminate many political, economic and social barriers between enterprises of different forms of ownership, between the population of the city and the countryside. The peasants were given the opportunity to look for work in the cities. Powerful migration flows have emerged within the country.

The fourth stage dates back to 2002-2008, which marked the beginning of a new stage of industrialization. On the one hand, the “Go outside!” Strategy continues to be implemented. with increasing export potential. Its growth rates are so high that surplus production capacity appears in the country in some branches of heavy industry. On the other hand, the development of industry turned out to be constrained due to the underdevelopment of the domestic market.

China's accession to the WTO caused changes in the development of industry, in its export orientation. Experiencing a shortage of many resources, seeking to master new international markets, China officially began "transnational economy", the formation of its own transnational corporations, to active actions in the world capital markets, raw materials, and product sales. One of these measures was the conclusion of an agreement with the ASEAN countries on the creation of a free trade zone within 10 years.

Since the mid-1990s. work was underway to create a "system of modern enterprises". Its purpose and content were determined by the needs of transforming state enterprises as units of a single state planned economy into independent economic structures owned by the state. In March 2003, the State Committee for the Control and Management of State Property was formed within the State Council of the PRC. Its organs are formed on the wire

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On September 9, 1976, at the age of 83 in Beijing, the Chairman of the CPC Central Committee Mao Zedong passed away. With his death, a whole epoch of modern Chinese history ended. Mao left China in crisis. According to official data, there were 20 million completely unemployed in the country, 8 million people “looking for” work, 100 million people were starving. The average per capita annual income was about $ 220 per year - one of the lowest in the world. In agriculture, it was around $ 80.

Basic food and most non-food items were distributed by ration cards. The growth in the production of food and basic necessities did not exceed the rate of population growth, which further exacerbated the economic situation.

As a result of the redistribution of power within the party and state leadership, Hua Guofeng came to the fore, taking the post of Chairman of the CPC Central Committee while retaining the post of head of government. One of his first steps was the removal from the political arena of Jiang Qing and three of her closest associates - Mao's son-in-law Yao Wenyuan, members of the Politburo Zhang Chunqiao and Wang Hongwen. Branded by official propaganda as the "Gang of Four", they found themselves at the center of a new ideological campaign to revise the outcome of the "Cultural Revolution."

In 1980-1981. an open trial of the Quartet took place in Beijing. All of the defendants were found guilty of committing serious crimes during the Cultural Revolution. Jiang Qing, who did not admit the charges, was sentenced to death (soon commuted to life in prison), the rest to long terms of imprisonment.

Without criticizing Mao Zzdong as a whole, his successors tried to attribute all previous mistakes to this group, including those in discrediting Deng Xiaoping. At the XI Congress of the CPC, held in the summer of 1977, he returned to leadership in the Party and the state, taking the posts of Deputy Premier of the State Council and Deputy Chairman of the Central Committee of the CPC. Gradually, the army began to pass under his full control, continuing to play a crucial role in the life of the state under the new conditions. At the same congress, the end of the "cultural revolution" was officially announced.

1. Economic reform of the system.

The official decision to carry out a large-scale economic reform in the PRC was taken on the initiative of Deng Xiaoping at the third Plenum of the CPC Central Committee in December 1978. It was preceded by a resolution of the NPC session at the beginning of the same year, which adopted directives on the deployment of the program of "four modernizations": in industry, agriculture, science and technology, as well as in the military field.

However, the implementation of that program faced a large number of difficulties, which could not be overcome without a radical modernization of the entire economic system and the support of the highest state power.

The NPC session in the summer of 1979 set the task of stabilizing the entire system of the national economy in the next three years. The transition to a system of production responsibility of peasants begins. The family contract was introduced everywhere and the former system of collective farming was modified. At the same time, purchase prices for agricultural products increased. * Agricultural machinery was gradually becoming the personal property of the peasants. The peasants could now dispose of the surplus produced at their discretion.

Then the reform swept the industrial sphere. Enterprises received greater independence, private entrepreneurial activities were allowed, free economic zones with the participation of foreign capital were created. Laws are being passed to eliminate previously mandatory directive planning. Party committees were now engaged only in educational work among the population, and did not replace, as before, state economic bodies.

The transformations carried out soon gave the first positive results. During the sixth five-year plan (1981-1985), the growth rate of industrial production increased annually by an average of 11%. Incomes of the urban and rural population in the 80s increased almost twice, however, continued to remain quite low in comparison with other countries.

By the mid-80s. the growth rates of agricultural production also slowed down, prices began to grow, and inflation increased. Under these conditions, in the fall of 1987, the XIII Congress of the CPC was held, at which a theory about the initial stage of socialism in the PRC was formulated. According to this concept, the building of socialism in China should go through three main stages. Until 1990 GNP will double (compared to 1980) and China's population will be provided with basic food and clothing without using the rationing system.

The second stage, which will take the next decade, up to 2000, will increase the GNP by another 2 times (compared to 1990) and the population will reach "average prosperity." The last stage, the longest in time, will end in 2049 (i.e., the year of the PRC's centenary) and will lead to the transformation of China into a country with a moderately developed, by world standards, level of development.

To achieve these goals, at the end of the 80s. decisive measures were taken to stabilize the economic situation: the rise in prices for the most important goods was limited by administrative methods, many capital construction projects were mothballed, and purchase prices for a number of agricultural goods were raised. Soon the “overheating” of the economy was stopped.

In parallel, measures were taken to curb the abuse of government officials and party workers in relation to private business. The exposed corrupt officials were subjected to harsh punishments, up to long terms of imprisonment, and in some cases the death penalty.

The 14th CPC Congress, held in October 1992, proclaimed the beginning of a new period of transformation, which was supposed to accelerate economic reform, expand ties with foreign countries, and accelerate growth in industry and agriculture. It was with economic success that the Chinese leadership began to associate the task of transforming the PRC into a "rich, powerful, democratic and civilized democratic state."

The congress set the task of building a "socialist market economy", which before that in official circles they tried not to speak. Apparently, the Chinese leaders were prompted to take this step by the sad experience of the USSR and other countries of the former socialist camp, which did not manage to start market development mechanisms in time and suffered a political collapse because of this.

After the end of the congress, the sphere of directive planning began to decline, and many sectoral ministries and departments were liquidated.

1. Political development of the PRC during the years of reforms

The Chinese leadership, unlike the Soviet, did not associate the successful implementation of economic transformations with a radical reform of the political system, in which the Communist Party continued to play the leading role. Nevertheless, the process of gradual rehabilitation of the victims of political repression from among the highest leaders of the CCP began. Thus, good names were posthumously restored, first by Peng Te-huai, and then by Liu Shaoqi. Many of the repressed but surviving CCP leaders returned to key positions in the party and state.

In the report dedicated to the 30th anniversary of the PRC, which was made by the Deputy Chairman of the CPC Central Committee Ye Jianying, the "cultural revolution" was assessed as the most brutal "feudal-fascist dictatorship" ... Mao Zedong continued to emerge from serious criticism, reflecting leadership struggles on these issues. Nevertheless, the initiative finally passed into the hands of Deng Xiaoping's supporters. At the beginning of 1980, Hua Guofeng and a number of his associates were losing their leading positions in the leadership. Hu Yaobang was appointed to the newly restored post of General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, into whose hands many important functions were transferred. Zhao Ziyang, who replaced Hua Guofeng as Premier of the State Council, was appointed to the Standing Committee of the Politburo of the CPC Central Committee. Both were promoted by Deng Xiaoping and victims of the Cultural Revolution.

In June 1981, the VI Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPC was held, at which a "Decision on Certain Issues in the History of the CPC Since the Formation of the PRC" was adopted. It officially condemned the personality cult of Mao Zedong, the policy of terror, carried out in the country all these years. According to the official data published at the plenum *, during the years of the "cultural revolution" the total number of repressed people amounted to 727 thousand people, of which 34 thousand were "brought to death." The total number of victims was about 100 However, at the plenum, it was asserted that Mao Zedong's services to the party and state occupy the main place, and his mistakes are “secondary”.

At the XII Congress of the CPC, held in the fall of 1982, as the main task of the CPC for the period up to 2000, along with the modernization of the economy, the transformation of the PRC into a country with a high level of culture and "highly developed democracy" was declared.

Deng Xiaoping himself was confirmed at the congress as Chairman of the Military Council of the PRC, at the same time, until 1989, holding the posts of Deputy Chairman of the CPC Central Committee and Deputy Premier of the State Council of the PRC. In fact, all these years he played a decisive role in leadership.

From the middle of the YO-ies, democratic tendencies were growing in Chinese society, which manifested themselves in the requirements for the liberalization of the political system of socialism. Students' demonstrations intensified especially sharply, and in a number of cities they turned into open clashes with the authorities. In early 1987, Hu Yaobang was accused of “conniving at bourgeois liberalization” and was dismissed from his post as head of the party. Zhao Ziyang was appointed to his post. Li Peng became the Premier of the State Council. However, the authorities did not succeed in completely suppressing this movement.

After the proclamation of the policy of "perestroika" in the USSR, new groups were formed that advocated not only the democratization of the political system, but also the revision of the role of the communist party in it. This was especially evident during the events of the summer of 1989, when the opposition student movement in Beijing began openly demonstrating for the democratization of life in the country. Troops were sent against the demonstrators. Personal responsibility for the incident was now assigned to Zhao Ziyang, who was forced to give up his post to Jiang Zemin, a supporter of a harder line in domestic politics. Deng Xiaoping saw in him his real successor in the 90s. post? Foamy gave him all the levers of control of the party and the state. In the last years of his life (Deng Xiaoping passed away in 1997), he retired from leadership work, retiring to retirement. Nevertheless, the title of "architect of Chinese reforms" was firmly entrenched behind him.

In March 1998, at the session of the NPC, Jiang Zemin was re-elected to the post of Chairman of the PRC and Chairman of the Military Council of the PRC; Zhu Rongzi, a consistent supporter of reforms, was appointed Premier of the State Council. Li Peng was transferred to the post of Chairman of the Central Committee of the NPC.

In official propaganda, a line is increasingly being drawn to emphasize the outstanding role of Mao Zedong as the founder of the PRC, Deng Xiaoping as the main ideologist of economic reforms, and Jiang Zemin as a faithful successor of all the best that was accumulated by Chinese society during the construction of socialism with "Chinese characteristics." ...

1. Foreign policy. Normalization of Sino-Soviet Relations

At the end of 1979, Soviet-Chinese negotiations began on the settlement of bilateral relations. They were held alternately in Moscow and Beijing at the level of deputy foreign ministers. As preconditions, the leaders of the PRC insisted on the reduction of Soviet troops along the joint border to the level of 1964, the withdrawal of the armed contingent from the MPR, as well as the termination of aid to Vietnam.

The Soviet delegation put forward its own project, which expressed the desire to build bilateral ties on the basis of international law, to expand contacts in various fields in every way. However, a real breakthrough came only at the end of 1982, after the XII Congress of the CPC and the death of L.I. Brezhnev. Relations between our countries have intensified in all areas.

In October 1985 Deng Xiaoping sent a letter to the new Soviet leader M.S. Gorbachev with a proposal to hold a summit meeting. Then there was an exchange of visits by the foreign ministers.

In February 1987, negotiations on border issues were resumed, which soon led to an agreement on the eastern section of the Soviet-Chinese border. This opened the way for the preparation of M.S. Gorbachev in the PRC, held in May 1989.

During the conversation between Mikhail Gorbachev and Deng Xiaoping, the Chinese leader announced the complete normalization of bilateral relations. Thus, the two countries opened up broad prospects for cooperation.

After the collapse of the USSR, relations between the PRC and Russia continued to develop along an ascending line. At the end of 1992, B.N. Yeltsin. More than 20 joint documents were signed, including the Joint Declaration on the Basics of Relations.

In its turn. Chinese President Jiang Zemin made official visits to Moscow in the 1990s. In particular, during his 1994 visit, an agreement was signed on the western section of the Russian-Chinese border.

China and Russia in the second half of the 90s. gradually became strategic partners in the Asian region.

From the late 1970s and up to the events in Tianan-Men Square in 1989, Sino-American relations also developed along an ascending line. In 1978 the two countries established official diplomatic relations between themselves. Economic and military cooperation was constantly expanding. The main stumbling block in bilateral relations continued to be the Taiwan problem. The United States, although it severed official political contacts with the Taipei regime, continued to maintain a wide range of relations with it.

In 1977, a peace treaty was signed between the PRC and Japan, which made it possible to raise bilateral relations to a new level.

Relations with India continued to be rather cool, overshadowed by long-standing border disputes and the Tibet issue.

But the most tense, right up to the beginning of the 90s, were relations with a united Vietnam. The SRV leadership, which received support from the USSR, since 1977 entered into a serious conflict with China over Cambodia, where the left-wing radical Pol Pot regime was established in power. The PRC accused Vietnam of persecuting ethnic Chinese (huaqiao) on its territory, and after the introduction of Vietnamese troops into Cambodia and the overthrow of the Pol Pot regime, in March 1979 it initiated an armed conflict on the joint border. For more than 10 years, relations between the two countries were actually frozen at a very low level. Only after the collapse of the socialist camp, both countries realized their political closeness, and found the political will to forget past grievances.

For quite a long time, the PRC's foreign policy has been based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe priority of national and state interests over the approach to choosing strategic partners based on the principle of ideological proximity. Even at the third plenum of the CPC Central Committee in December 1978, it was unambiguously emphasized that it is necessary to see the world as it is, without excessive ideologization and dogmatic blinders.

Since the mid-1980s, the Chinese leadership has been developing the concept of a multipolar world in which the PRC must take its rightful place as one of the new "centers of power" not only in Asia, but in the world as a whole. In this desire, the PRC finds active support from Russia, which has been supporting and developing this idea since the second half of the 90s.

1. China in the second half of the 90s

The PRC is taking the leading positions in world economic development. It took 7th place in terms of gross domestic product (GDP) production, and 11th in terms of foreign trade. The country's share in global industrial production has exceeded three percent.

Despite the significant amount of external debt, China has the ability to make its repayment on time, in addition to its foreign exchange reserves, which in 1998 amounted to $ 149 billion. However, the per capita income, which has already exceeded the 1 billion 200 million mark, remains rather low - about $ 560 a year.

China continues to experience difficulties in connection with the uneven development of certain regions, a relatively ineffective public sector of the economy.

A significant event in the life of the PRC was the reunification with Hong Kong and Macau - two large industrial centers and the most important strategic footholds in the south of the country.

In the future, the integration of the market systems of these formations into the Chinese economy can lead to significant positive results.

In foreign policy, the PRC is trying to play an independent role as the largest regional power and as one of the centers of power in the future multipolar world. In this, the Chinese leadership is supported by Russia, and the United States and its closest allies are very wary.

The Chinese economy, which was on the brink of disaster after the failure of the Great Leap Forward and the commanding methods of Mao Zedong. The initial task of the reforms was to solve the problem of motivating workers and peasants and to eliminate the economic imbalances characteristic of command economies.

Chinese economic reforms have consisted of several stages. Basically, they were not part of any strategic plan, but were an immediate response to pressing problems (“Crossing the river, feeling the stones” - Deng Xiaoping). Sometimes, for example, by closing state enterprises, the government was forced to take undesirable measures.

In the West, China's economic reforms have been seen by many as a return to capitalism, however, perhaps to avoid ideological controversy and questions about its own legitimacy, the Chinese government claims it is just a form of socialism. At the same time, the Chinese government does not deny that it uses various economic measures that are used in capitalist countries. Deng Xiaoping explained this contradiction with his famous phrase: “It doesn't matter what color the cat is, the main thing is that it catches mice,” and also with a quote from Marx that practice is the main criterion of truth. Some authors also drew attention to the internal Chinese sources of economic ideas and practices that reformers relied on.

Stages of reforms

First step socio-economic renewal of the country began after the third plenum of the CPC Central Committee of the eleventh convocation and covered 1978-1984. The first part of China's economic reform involved the establishment of a family contracting system in agriculture that replaced the disbanded “communes”, “big” and “small” brigades (1984). The land itself outside the cities was declared the property of the "collective of villagers." Thus, the preservation of collective ownership of land made it possible to declare the courtyard contract as part of the socialist economy.

In most other sectors of the economy, the role of government was reduced, managers were given more managerial powers, enterprises were incited to profitable production, the role of the private sector was increased, and experimentation with new forms of ownership began in the public sector. Trade pressures were eased, and business combinations with foreign firms were officially promoted as the primary sources of new technologies and scarce foreign exchange. With rising incomes, incentives, notable growth in services, and the dawn of the industrial sector, the People's Republic of China began to display some of the characteristics of a consumer society.

In foreign policy, an "open door policy" was introduced, according to which the PRC allowed international trade and foreign direct investment. These initiatives immediately increased the standard of living of the majority of the Chinese population and later allowed more complex reforms to be supported.

Nevertheless, the movement towards the market was systemic and complex, and in 1987 the transition was far from complete. The easing of restrictions on economic activity quickly eased some of China's most stagnant economic difficulties, but also spurred new problems to rise. Inflation - the highest fear of Chinese consumers - became a problem for the first time since the early 1950s. Along with new opportunities for profit-making, there have been growing income inequalities and new temptations for crime, corruption, and the Western system of values, viewed by many older Chinese as decline and "spiritual desecration." The state continued to control the largest non-agricultural enterprises, and much of the industry was still mainly driven by central planning.

Thus, the Chinese economy in the late 1980s was a highly mixed system. It could not be characterized either as a planned economy or as a market economy. The leadership adhered to further expanding the reform agenda as a necessity for sufficient economic growth, but at the same time it was forced to maintain a strong focus on key aspects of the economy (notably inflation and grain production) in order to avoid extremes of overwhelming political discontent. Due to these circumstances, the forces of the economic leadership acted against each other, creating what the Chinese authorities called "divisions." On the one hand, the economy was no longer under the control of government planning due to the large growing market industry. On the other hand, the market could not operate efficiently as many goods were still under government control and most prices were still held back or limited by the government. Under the leadership of Deng Xiaoping, the whole country “rode on a tiger” (moving towards high progress, but without total control) and therefore it is no longer possible to stop the process without risk.

Despite explosive growth in the 1980s, the Chinese economy still shared many of the main characteristics of the rest of the developing world. The gross national product per capita in 1986 was ¥ 849, or about $ 228 (at the 1986 exchange rate), reflecting low average labor productivity. As in many countries, this could not contribute to the start of a long industrialization effort until the middle of the twentieth century, the main Chinese labor force (over 60%) was still employed in agriculture, which accounted for 30% of the value of total production. Agricultural work was still mostly done by hand. Modern equipment was mainly used in industry, but was largely a precursor to older low-productivity models.

In other respects, China's economy was somewhat different from that of most developing countries. The most important difference, despite the ongoing changes, was that the Chinese economy was organized as a socialist system governed by central planning. The dominance of the state and collective ownership, the central management of firms instead of the financial system, the reallocation of resources between regions, the distribution of grain, and subsidized housing were reflected in a system of income distribution that was much more limited than in nearly all other developing countries. The form of private property in production assets lent some sincerity to capitalism. Agricultural lands were leased to farm families, but formally they were under the ownership of villages, towns, settlements - group units that replaced communes.

In the mid-1980s, most Chinese people remained in poverty by American standards, but several important measurements showed that their quality of life was significantly better than expected based on gross national product (GNP) per capita. According to the World Bank, in 1984 energy consumption per person was 485 kilograms of oil equivalent - more than in any other “low-income” country and above the average for “lower-middle-income” countries. In 1983, the daily per capita diet was 2,620 calories — 11% above the basic requirement and about as much above the average for the "upper-middle" countries. Significantly, the initial mortality rate in 1985 was 39 per 1000 - much lower than the average for the "upper-middle-income" countries, and the life expectancy at birth was 69 years - higher than the average for the "upper-middle-income" countries.

Despite the major economic gains China has made since 1949 and the dramatic breakthroughs of the 1980s, serious imbalances and deficits have persisted. The scarcity was fueled by the state disorder that destroyed the economy during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), lack of flexibility in planning and serious oversights in price structures. Huge shortages, inadequate vehicles and communication networks, a lack of technicians and other highly qualified personnel, insufficient exchange of currency to purchase advanced technologies from other countries, and inadequate legal and administrative measures against domestic and foreign trade have all contributed to the difficulty of modernization.

An important by-product of the reform program since the 1970s has been the tremendous increase in the amount of information available about the economy. The government collected and published basic national economic data in the 1950s, but the centralized statistics collection system collapsed in the late 1950s, and very little statistical information was available during the 1960s and early 1970s. This continued until 1979, when the State Bureau of Statistics did away with the statistical blackout by publishing official economic statistics. In the following years, the State Bureau of Statistics published more and more articles, including annual economic compilations and statistical yearbooks, which gradually became better and more informative. In addition, most provincial provinces and cities, as well as the main industrial and economic regions specializing in coal mining and agriculture, have begun producing their own specialized statistical yearbooks. In the early 1980s, numerous periodicals began to appear, many of which specialized in economic data and analysis. Although Chinese statistical concepts and methods were still different in many respects from those in other countries, and even Chinese economists questioned the consistency of some of the data, foreign analysts in 1987 still had access to a rich and growing body of data that contributed to a wide analysis of the Chinese economy. ...

However, the transition to a market economy in the early 1990s created two main problems. First, the end of central planning required the establishment of mechanisms for setting financial policy, the banking system, and capital markets. Throughout the 1990s, work has been done to get these systems operational.

Another problem was generated by state-owned enterprises (SOEs). Under the frozen price system, the prices of income and expenditure of state enterprises were fixed, allowing them to use the difference to finance social security. When income and expenses began to be calculated at market prices, most SOEs became extremely unprofitable for two reasons: they were in charge of providing welfare for workers and they produced goods that no one wanted to buy. Over time, this was resolved with bank loans, but this gave rise to a massive amount of debt defaults. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, this problem was addressed by the closure of disadvantaged state factories and the development of social security systems.

Notes

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