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Jean Piaget on Kant. Jean Piaget

03.01.2021

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, the capital of the French-speaking canton of Neuchâtel, Switzerland. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget began his long scientific career at the age of ten, when in 1907 he published a short note on albino sparrows. During his scientific life, Piaget wrote more than 60 books and several hundred articles.

Piaget began to take an early interest in biology, especially mollusks, publishing several scientific papers before leaving school. As a result, he was even offered the prestigious position of caretaker of the mollusk collection at the Geneva Museum of Natural History. By the age of 20, he had become a recognized malacologist.

Piaget did his Ph.D. in natural sciences from the University of Neuchâtel, and he also briefly studied at the University of Zurich. At this time, he begins to get involved in psychoanalysis, a very popular area of \u200b\u200bpsychological thought at that time.

After receiving his degree, Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, where he taught at a boys' school on the Rue Grande aux Velles, whose director was Alfred Binet, the creator of the IQ test. While helping to process IQ test scores, Piaget noticed that young children consistently give incorrect answers to certain questions. However, he focused not so much on the wrong answers, but on the fact that children make the same mistakes that are not characteristic of older people. This observation led Piaget to theorize that the thoughts and cognitive processes of children differ significantly from those of adults. Later, he created a general theory of stages of development, stating that people who are in the same stage of their development exhibit similar general forms of cognitive abilities. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland and became director of the Rousseau Institute in Geneva.

In 1923, Piaget married Valentin Schatenau, who was his student. The couple had three children, whom Piaget studied from childhood. In 1929, Piaget accepted an invitation to become director of the International Bureau of Education, at which he remained until 1968.

Scientific legacy

Features of the child's psyche

In the initial period of his activity, Piaget described the features of children's ideas about the world:

inseparability of the world and one's own self,
animism (belief in the existence of the soul and spirits and in the animation of all nature),
artificalism (perception of the world as created by human hands).

To explain them, I used the concept of egocentrism, by which I understood a certain position in relation to the world around, overcome through the process of socialization and affecting the constructions of children's logic: syncretism (connecting everything to everything), non-perception of contradictions, ignoring the general when analyzing the particular, misunderstanding of the relativity of some concepts. All these phenomena find their most vivid expression in egocentric speech.

Theory of intelligence

Later, J. Piaget turned to the study of the intellect, in which he saw the result of the internalization of external actions.

Stages of development of intelligence

Piaget identified the following stages in the development of intelligence.

During the period of sensory-motor intelligence, the organization of perceptual and motor interactions with the outside world gradually develops. This development proceeds from being limited by innate reflexes to the associated organization of sensory-motor actions in relation to the immediate environment. At this stage, only direct manipulations with things are possible, but not actions with symbols, representations in the internal plan.

At the stage of pre-operational representations, a transition is made from sensory-motor functions to internal - symbolic, that is, to actions with representations, and not with external objects.

This stage of the development of the intellect is characterized by the dominance of preconceptions and transductive reasoning; egocentrism; focusing on the conspicuous features of the object and neglecting the rest of its features in reasoning; focusing on the states of a thing and inattention to its transformations.

At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations. The child develops special cognitive structures called groupings (for example, classification), thanks to which the child acquires the ability to perform operations with classes and establish logical relationships between classes, uniting them in hierarchies, whereas earlier his capabilities were limited to transduction and the establishment of associative links.

The limitation of this stage is that operations can be performed only with concrete objects, but not with statements. Operations logically structure the performed external actions, but they cannot yet structure verbal reasoning in a similar way.

The main ability that appears at the stage of formal operations (from about 11 to about 15 years old) is the ability to deal with the possible, with the hypothetical, and perceive external reality as a special case of what is possible, what could be. Cognition becomes hypothetical-deductive. The child acquires the ability to think in sentences and establish formal relationships (inclusion, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) between them. The child at this stage is also able to systematically identify all the variables that are relevant to the solution of the problem, and systematically go through all possible combinations of these variables.

Language and thinking

Regarding the relationship between language and thinking in cognitive development, Piaget believes that “language does not fully explain thinking, since the structures that characterize this latter are rooted in action and in sensorimotor mechanisms deeper than linguistic reality. Yet it is clear that the more complex the structures of thought become, the more necessary language is to complete their processing. Therefore, language is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the construction of logical operations.

Criticism of J. Piaget in Russian psychology

In the book Thinking and Speech (1934), L. S. Vygotsky entered into a correspondence discussion with Piaget on the question of egocentric speech. Considering Piaget's work as a major contribution to the development of psychological science, L. S. Vygotsky reproached him for the fact that Piaget approached the analysis of the development of higher mental functions in an abstract way, without taking into account the social and cultural environment. Unfortunately, Piaget was only able to get acquainted with Vygotsky's views many years after Vygotsky's early death.

Differences in the views of Piaget and domestic psychologists are manifested in the understanding of the source and driving forces of mental development. Piaget viewed mental development as a spontaneous, learning-independent process that obeys biological laws. Domestic psychologists see the source of the child's mental development in his environment, and the development itself is considered as a process of appropriation by the child of socio-historical experience. This explains the role of education in mental development, which is especially emphasized by Russian psychologists and underestimated by Piaget. Critically analyzing the operational concept of intelligence proposed by Piaget, domestic specialists do not consider logic as the only and main criterion of intelligence and do not assess the level of formal operations as highest level development of intellectual activity. Experimental studies (Zaporozhets A.V., Galperin P.Ya., Elkonin D.B.) showed that not logical operations, but orientation in objects and phenomena is the most important part of any human activity and the results of this activity depend on its nature.

Piaget's theory of the development of intelligence is the most developed and influential of all known theories of intellectual development, in which ideas about the internal nature of intelligence and its external manifestations are consistently combined. In order to better appreciate the contribution of Jean Piaget to psychological science in general and to the development of the psychology of thinking, in particular, let us turn to the statements of two well-known experts in this field.

“A paradox is known,” writes L. F. Obukhova, according to which the authority of a scientist is best determined by how much he slowed down the development of science in his field. Modern foreign psychology of childhood is literally blocked by Piaget's ideas. ... No one manages to break out of the limits of the system he has developed,” emphasizes the author.

“The irresistible and attractive power of the works and ideas of J. Piaget,” according to N. I. Chuprikova, is primarily in the breadth of the reality captured by his analysis, in the facts described by him, in ... the level of generalization and interpretation. At this level, through the facts and their interpretation, the action of strict and immutable laws of development visibly shines through. The “strict and immutable laws of development” discovered by Jean Piaget and “slowed down” the development of the science of mechanisms cognitive development child from birth to adolescence inclusive. Let's turn to the theory itself.

Piaget's theory of the development of the intellect is, first of all, a dynamic concept of the development of the intellect, considering the process of its formation in the course of the individual development of the child. This approach is called genetic. J. Piaget's concept provides answers to the most acute questions of human cognitive development: - is the subject capable of distinguishing the inner, subjective world from the outer and what are the boundaries of such a distinction; - what is the substratum of the ideas (thoughts) of the subject: are they the product of the external world acting on the mind or are they the product of the subject's own mental activity; - what are the relationships between the thought of the subject and the phenomena of the external world; - what is the essence of the laws to which this interaction is subject, in other words, what is the origin and development of the basic scientific concepts that a thinking person uses.

The central position of the concept of J. Piaget is the position on the interaction between the organism and the environment, or the position on equilibrium.

The external environment is constantly changing, says Piaget. The organism, i.e. a subject that exists independently of the external environment (object) strives to establish a balance with it. Equilibrium with the environment can be established in two ways: either by adapting the external environment to itself by the subject by changing it, or by changing the subject itself. Both that and another is possible, only by fulfillment by the subject of certain actions. Performing actions, the subject thereby finds ways or schemes of these actions that allow him to restore the disturbed balance. According to Piaget, the scheme of action is the sensorimotor equivalent of a concept, a cognitive skill. “She, (the scheme of action), - comments L. F. Obukhova, - allows the child to act economically and adequately with objects of the same class or with different states of the same object.” If the child is affected by an object of another class, then in order to restore the disturbed balance, he is forced to perform new actions and thereby find new schemes (concepts) that are adequate to this class of objects. So, action is an "intermediary" between the child and the surrounding world, with the help of which he actively manipulates and experiments with real objects (things, their shape, properties, etc.). Indeed, when a child is confronted with new problems (objects) that violate his already established ideas about the world (disturb the balance), this makes him look for answers to them. The "knocked out of balance" child tries to balance himself with this changed environment by explaining it, that is, by developing new schemes or concepts. The different and ever more complex methods of explanation used by the child are the stages of his cognition. Thus, the need to restore balance by the subject is the driving force of his cognitive (intellectual) development, and the balance itself is an internal regulator of the development of intellect. That is why Piaget's intellect is "the highest and most perfect form of psychological adaptation, the most effective ... tool in the interactions of the subject with the outside world," and thought itself is "a compressed form of action." The development of action schemes, in other words, cognitive development occurs “as the child’s experience in practical action with objects grows and becomes more complex” due to “the internalization of objective actions, i.e. their gradual transformation into mental operations (actions performed internally)” .

From what has been said, it is clear that the very schemes of actions, operations, i.e. the concepts discovered by the subject as a result of his actions are not innate. They are the result of objective actions performed by an active subject when interacting with an object. Therefore, the content of mental concepts is determined by the characteristics of this object. An innate character is the activity of the subject, fixed in him by the genetic program of development. Consequently, the pace of the child's cognitive development is determined, firstly, by the level of his activity, the degree of maturation of the nervous system, secondly, by the experience of his interaction with the objects of the external environment affecting him, and, thirdly, by language and upbringing. Thus, we do not see anything innate in the level of development of the intellect. It is only innate that the intellect (cognitive development) is able to function. And the way of this functioning and the level of its achievements will be determined by the action of the listed factors. Therefore, all children go through the stages of cognitive development in the same sequence, but the methods of their passage and intellectual achievements will be different for everyone due to different conditions of their development.

So, we found out that the cognitive development of the subject is a necessary condition for his adaptation (adaptation). In order to adapt, i.e., to solve new problems, the organism must either modify its existing schemes of activity (concepts) or develop new ones. Thus, there are only two adaptation mechanisms. The first of these is the mechanism of assimilation, when an individual adapts new information (situation, object) to his existing schemes (structures), without changing them in principle, i.e., he includes a new object in his existing schemes of actions or structures. For example, if a newborn, a few moments after birth, can grab an adult's finger put into his palm, just like he can grab the parent's hair, a cube put into his hand, etc., i.e. each time he adapts new information to existing action plans. And here is an example illustrating the operation of the mechanism of assimilation in early childhood. At the sight of a fluffy spaniel, the child screams: "Doggy." He will say the same thing when he sees a fluffy setter or collie. But when he first sees a fur coat, he will again say “dog”, because. according to his system of concepts, everything fluffy is a dog. In the future, in addition to the characteristics - fluffy, a whole set of others are built into the concept of "dog": soft, four-legged, lively, friendly, tail, wet nose, etc. Thus, the concept is being improved, which allows us to further differentiate it from the concept of "fur coat".

The other is the mechanism of accommodation, when the individual adapts his previously formed reactions to new information(situation, object), i.e., he is forced to rebuild (modify) old schemes (structures) in order to adapt them to new information (situation, object). For example, if a child continues to suck on a spoon in order to satisfy hunger, i.e. try to adapt the new situation to the existing sucking pattern (assimilation mechanism), then soon he will be convinced that such behavior is ineffective (he cannot satisfy the feeling of hunger and thereby adapt to the situation) and he needs to change his old pattern (sucking), i.e. modify the movements of the lips and tongue in order to pick up food from the spoon (accommodation mechanism). Thus, a new scheme of action (a new concept) appears. Obviously, the functions of these two mechanisms are opposite. Thanks to assimilation, the existing schemes (concepts) are refined and improved, and thus balance with the environment is achieved by adapting the environment to the subject, and thanks to accommodation, restructuring, modification of existing schemes and the emergence of new, learned concepts. The nature of the relationship between them determines the qualitative content of human mental activity. Actually logical thinking as the highest form of cognitive development is the result of a harmonic synthesis between them. In the early stages of development, any mental operation is a compromise between assimilation and accommodation. The development of the intellect is the process of the maturation of operational structures (concepts), which gradually grow out of the child's objective everyday experience against the background of the manifestation of these two main mechanisms.

According to Piaget, the process of development of the intellect consists of three large periods, within which the emergence and formation of three main structures (types of intellect) takes place. The first of these is sensorimotor intelligence, the duration of which is from birth to 2 years.

Within this period, the newborn perceives the world without knowing himself as a subject, without understanding his own actions. Real for him only that which is given to him through his sensations. He looks, listens, touches, smells, tastes, screams, hits, crushes, bends, throws, pushes, pulls, sprinkles, performs other sensory and motor actions. At this stage of development, the leading role belongs to the direct sensations and perception of the child. His knowledge of the world around him is formed on their basis. Therefore, this stage is characterized by the formation and development of sensitive and motor structures - sensory and motor abilities. One of the main questions is about the initial or primary patterns of action that allow the newborn to establish balance in the first hours and days of his life.

They, according to Piaget, are the reflexes of the newborn, with which he is born, and which allow you to act expediently in a limited number of situations. But since there are few of them, he is forced to change them and form new, more complex schemes on their basis. For example, by combining innate sucking and grasping reflexes, a newborn learns, firstly, to drag objects into his mouth. Secondly, this new scheme, combined with innate visual control, allows the child to use the nipple himself and, thirdly, to switch to a new type of feeding - from a spoon. There are 6 stages within sensorimotor intelligence.

1. Stage of exercise of reflexes (0-1 month). The example above was already given with a newborn who grabbed the parent's finger put into his hand, as well as any other object. If you touch his lips with your finger, he will begin to suck on it, just like any other object. The behavior of the newborn is subject to "mastering" all objects in contact with him with the help of innate reflexes (action patterns) of sucking and grasping (assimilation). He does not distinguish objects from each other and therefore treats everyone the same. Piaget believed that at this stage, children "exercise" those skills that they now possess, and since there are few of them, they repeat them over and over again.

2. Stage of primary circular reactions (1-4 months). The baby already distinguishes between sucking a blanket and a pacifier. Therefore, when he is hungry, he pushes back the blanket, preferring his mother's breast. He "becomes aware" of the existence of his fingers by bringing them to his mouth. He sucks a little thumb. He turns his head in the direction of the sounds made by the mother, and follows her movements around the room.

Obviously, all these are new patterns of action by which the baby adapts to his environment. He demands breasts, because “understood” that some objects he suckles give milk, while others do not. He intentionally raises and directs his thumb into his mouth. Finally, he follows the mother, which indicates visual-auditory coordination. All this is the result of accommodation. However, if the mother leaves the room or the favorite toy disappears from sight, then the baby does not react to this in any way, as if they never existed.

3. Stage of secondary circular reactions (coordination of vision and grasping) (4-8 months).

Accidentally hitting the sound "roly-poly" with his hand, the baby heard its melodic sound, which attracted his attention. He touched the toy again, and again the pleasant sounds were repeated. By repeating this movement many times, the baby “understands” that there is some connection between pushing the “roly-poly” and the music that it makes. Thus, at this stage, the child performs purposeful and, moreover, coordinated actions. Already known schemes are coordinated by the child in order to obtain the desired result. Behavior is still random (accidentally hit the "tumbler"). But if the child liked the result (music), then the action is repeated, until the need is met (balance is established).

Another aspect of development at this stage. An 8-month-old baby can find his favorite toy hidden in front of his eyes. If you cover it with something, he will find it in this place. At this stage, the child can "guess" the location of moving objects. For example, if a moving toy is hidden behind some object, then the child stretches his hand to the place where it should appear, "anticipating" its appearance. Thus, the fundamental difference between behavior at this stage and the previous one is that if before that it arose in response only to the direct contact of objects with the child's body, now it is provoked by objects located in space and not directly in contact with the child's body. In addition, the child begins to develop an idea of the constancy of objects, that is, the realization that objects exist even if they cannot be seen. In other words, these are the first steps towards the objectification of the world and the subjectivization of one's own "I". The most important acquisition at this stage is the development of a reaction of anticipation.

4. Stage of coordination of secondary schemes (beginning of practical intelligence) (8-12 months).

Piaget gives the following example with his 8 month old daughter. “Jacqueline is trying to grab the pack of cigarettes that I showed her. Then I place the pack between the intersecting rods that secure the toys to the top rail of the crib. She wants to get a pack, but, having not succeeded, she immediately looks at the bars, between which the object of her dreams sticks out. The girl looks ahead, grabs the rods, shakes them (means). The tutu falls and the baby grabs it (target). When the experiment was repeated, the girl had the same reaction, but without trying to grab the pack directly with her hands.

As you can see, the girl has invented means (pulls out rods from a wicker bed) to achieve a specific goal (get a pack). She already had two schemes in hand - aimlessly pulling out the rods and trying to grab a pack of cigarettes. Coordinating them among themselves, she formed a new scheme (behavior).

Thus, at the 4th stage of development, there is a further improvement of purposeful and arbitrary actions.

5. Stage of tertiary circular reactions (appearance of new funds) (1 year - 1.5 years).

The child's behavior becomes inquisitive: he carefully examines each new object before accepting or rejecting it. Experimentation is, in fact, the emergence of new mental schemes, the beginning of the actual mental activity. If before this stage the child's behavior was predominantly reflex in nature, then thanks to the ability to find new ways of interacting with unknown objects, the child easily reconfigures to situations unfamiliar to him. At this stage, the child develops the ability to adapt to a new situation, most often through trial and error.

6. Stage of invention of new means (beginning of symbolic thinking) (1.5-2 years).

At this stage, the thinking and behavior of children are completely dependent on new information received by them both through the senses and through motor activity. Symbolic thinking allows the child to repeatedly reproduce the imprinted images-symbols of objects. For example, many parents remember how their one and a half year old child repeatedly repeated the same scene he loved: imagining a cookie in his hands, which in reality was not there, he repeatedly gave it to your mouth, and in response to this you said to him thanks. At this stage, the baby does mental operations not so much with specific objects as with their images. The constant trial-and-error experiments that characterize stage 5 give way to the ability to solve simple problems in your mind, based on images of objects. However, the transition from concrete-sensual thinking to figurative thinking is a long process that develops for about 2 years.

So, the course of intellectual development during the first two years of life goes from unconditioned reflexes to conditioned ones, their training and development of skills, the establishment of coordinated relationships between them, which gives the child the opportunity to experiment, i.e. perform actions like trial and error, and the emerging opportunity to anticipate development in a new situation, coupled with the existing intellectual potential, creates the basis for symbolic or pre-conceptual intelligence.

Jean William Fritz Piaget(fr. Jean William Fritz Piaget; August 9 (1896-08-09 ) , Neuchâtel , Switzerland - 16 of September, Geneva, Switzerland) - Swiss psychologist and philosopher, known for his work on the study of the psychology of children, the creator of the theory of cognitive development. The founder of the Geneva school of genetic psychology, later J. Piaget developed his approach into the science of the nature of cognition - genetic epistemology.

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Biography

Jean Piaget was born in the city of Neuchâtel, the capital of the French-speaking canton of Neuchâtel Switzerland. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget began his long scientific career at the age of eleven, when he published a short note on albino sparrows in 1907. During his scientific life, Piaget wrote more than 60 books and several hundred articles.

Piaget completed his Ph.D. in natural sciences and received his Ph.D. from the University of Neuchâtel, and he also studied briefly at the University of Zurich. At this time, he begins to get involved in psychoanalysis, a direction of psychological thought very popular at that time.

After receiving his degree, Piaget moved from Switzerland to Paris, where he taught at a school for boys on the Rue Grande aux Velles, whose director was Alfred Binet, the creator of the test. While helping to process IQ test scores, Piaget noticed that young children consistently give incorrect answers to certain questions. However, he focused not so much on the wrong answers, but on the fact that children make the same mistakes that are not characteristic of older people. This observation led Piaget to theorize that the thoughts and cognitive processes of children differ significantly from those of adults. Later, he created a general theory of stages of development, stating that people who are in the same stage of their development exhibit similar general forms of cognitive abilities. In 1921, Piaget returned to Switzerland and became a director in Geneva.

Scientific legacy

Features of the child's psyche

In the initial period of his activity, Piaget described the features of children's ideas about the world:

inseparability of the world and one's own self,
animism (belief in the existence of the soul and spirits and in the animation of all nature),
artificalism (perception of the world as created by human hands).

To explain them, I used the concept of egocentrism, by which I understood a certain position in relation to the world around, overcome through the process of socialization and affecting the constructions of children's logic: syncretism (connecting everything with everything), non-perception of contradictions, ignoring the general when analyzing the particular, misunderstanding of the relativity of some concepts. All these phenomena find their most vivid expression in egocentric speech.

Theory of intelligence

In traditional psychology, children's thinking was seen as more primitive than that of an adult. But, according to Piaget, the child's thinking can be characterized as qualitatively different, original and distinctively special in its properties.

Piaget developed his method when working with children - a method of collecting data through a clinical conversation, during which the experimenter asks the child questions or offers certain tasks, and receives answers in a free form. The purpose of the clinical conversation is to identify the causes leading to the onset of symptoms.

The adaptive nature of intelligence

The development of intelligence occurs due to the adaptation of the subject to a changing environment. Piaget introduced the concept of balance as the main life goal of the individual. The source of knowledge is the activity of the subject, aimed at restoring homeostasis. The balance between the influence of the organism on the environment and the reverse impact of the environment is ensured by adaptation, that is, the balancing of the subject with the environment occurs on the basis of the balance of two differently directed processes - assimilation and accommodation. On the one hand, the action of the subject affects the objects surrounding him, and on the other hand, the environment affects the subject by the opposite action.

Development of intelligence structures

Operations are internalized mental actions, coordinated into a system with other actions and possessing the properties of reversibility, which ensure the preservation of the basic properties of the object.

Piaget describes intellectual development in the form of various groupings, analogous to mathematical groups. Grouping is a closed and reversible system in which all operations combined into a whole are subject to 5 criteria:

Combination: A + B = C
Reversibility: C - B = A
Associativity: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
General operation identity: A - A = 0
Tautology: A + A = A.

Development of the child's thinking

congenital,
subject to the principle of pleasure,
not directed to the outside world,
does not adapt to external conditions.

Egocentric thinking occupies an intermediate stage between autistic logic and socialized, rational logic. The transition to egocentric thinking is associated with coercive relations - the child begins to correlate the principles of pleasure and reality.

Egocentric thought remains autistic in structure, but in this case the interests of the child are not directed exclusively to the satisfaction of organic needs or the needs of play, as is the case with autistic thought, but are also directed to mental adjustment, which, in turn, is similar to the thought of an adult. .

Piaget believed that the stages of development of thinking are reflected through an increase in the coefficient of egocentric speech (the coefficient of egocentric speech = the ratio of egocentric utterances to the total number of utterances). According to the theory of J. Piaget, egocentric speech does not perform a communicative function, only interest on the part of the interlocutor is important for the child, but he does not try to take the side of the interlocutor. From 3 to 5 years, the coefficient of egocentric speech increases, then it decreases, up to about 12 years.

At the age of 7-12, egocentrism is forced out of the sphere of perception.

Characteristics of socialized thinking:

subject to the principle of reality,
formed during life
aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world,
expressed in speech.

Types of speech

Piaget divides children's speech into two large groups: egocentric speech and socialized speech.

Egocentric speech, according to J. Piaget, is such, because the child speaks only about himself, without trying to take the place of the interlocutor. The child does not have a goal to influence the interlocutor, to convey some thought or idea to him, only the visible interest of the interlocutor is important.

J. Piaget divides egocentric speech into three categories: monologue, repetition and "monologue together."

The increase in the coefficient of egocentric speech occurs from 3 to 5 years, but after that, regardless of the environment and external factors, the coefficient of egocentric speech begins to decrease. Thus egocentrism gives way to decentration, and egocentric speech gives way to socialized speech. Socialized speech, unlike egocentric, performs a specific function of communication, communicative influence.

The sequence of development of speech and thinking, according to the theory of J. Piaget, is in the following sequence: first, extra-verbal autistic thinking arises, which is replaced by egocentric speech and egocentric thinking, after the "withering away" of which socialized speech and logical thinking are born.

Stages of development of intelligence

Main article: Stages development intelligence (J. Piaget)

Piaget identified the following stages in the development of intelligence.

Sensorimotor intelligence (0-2 years)

From the name it becomes clear that this type of intelligence concerns the sensory and motor spheres. During this period, children discover the connection between their actions and their consequences. With the help of the senses and motor skills, the child explores the world around him, every day his ideas about objects and objects improve and expand. The child begins to use the simplest actions, but gradually moves to the use of more complex actions. Through countless "experiments", the child begins to form the concept of himself as something separate from the outside world. At this stage, only direct manipulations with things are possible, but not actions with symbols, representations in the internal plan. During the period of sensory-motor intelligence, the organization of perceptual and motor interactions with the outside world gradually develops. This development proceeds from being limited by innate reflexes to the associated organization of sensory-motor actions in relation to the immediate environment.

Preparation and organization of specific operations (2-11 years):

Sub-period of pre-operational representations (2-7 years)

At the stage of pre-operational representations, a transition is made from sensory-motor functions to internal - symbolic, that is, to actions with representations, and not with external objects. One symbol represents a certain entity that can symbolize another. For example, a child during the game can use the box as if it were a table, pieces of paper can be plates for him. The child's thinking is still self-centered, he is hardly ready to accept the point of view of another person. The game at this stage is characterized by decontextualization and the replacement of objects representing other objects. The child's delayed imitations and speech also reveal the possibilities of using symbols. Despite the fact that children 3-4 years old can think symbolically, their words and images do not yet have a logical organization. This stage is called pre-operational by Piaget because the child does not yet understand certain rules or operations. For example, if you pour water from a high and narrow glass into a low and wide one, then the amount of water will not change - and adults know this, they can perform this operation in their mind, imagine the process. In a child at the preoperational stage of cognitive development, the concept of reversibility and other mental operations is rather weak or absent.

Another key characteristic of the child's preoperational stage of thinking is egocentrism. It is difficult for a child at this stage of development to realize someone else's point of view, they believe that everyone else perceives the world around them in the same way as they do.

Piaget believed that egocentrism explains the rigidity of thinking at the preoperational stage. Insofar as Small child cannot appreciate another's point of view, therefore, he is not able to revise his ideas, taking into account changes in environment. Hence their inability to perform inverse operations or take into account the conservation of quantity.

Sub-period of specific operations (7-11 years)

At this stage, the mistakes that the child makes at the preoperational stage are corrected, but they are corrected in different ways and not all at once.

From the name of this stage, it becomes clear that we are talking about operations, namely, logical operations and principles that are used to solve problems. The child at this stage is not only able to use symbols, but he can also manipulate them on a logical level. The meaning of the definition "concrete" operation, which is included in the name of this stage, is that the operational solution of problems (i.e., a solution based on reversible mental actions) occurs separately for each problem and depends on its content. For example, physical concepts are acquired by a child in the following sequence: quantity, length and mass, area, weight, time and volume.

An important achievement of this period is the mastery of the concept of reversibility, that is, the child begins to understand that the consequences of one operation can be canceled by performing a reverse operation.

At about 7-8 years old, a child masters the concept of conservation of matter, for example, he understands that if many small balls are made from a ball of plasticine, then the amount of plasticine will not change.

At the stage of specific operations, actions with representations begin to be combined, coordinated with each other, forming systems of integrated actions called operations. The child develops special cognitive structures called factions(for example, classification), thanks to which the child acquires the ability to perform operations with classes and establish logical relationships between classes, uniting them in hierarchies, whereas earlier his abilities were limited to transduction and the establishment of associative links.

Formal operations (11-15 years old)

A child who is at the stage of concrete operations is faced with the difficulty of applying his abilities in abstract situations, that is, situations that are not represented in his life. If an adult says, "Don't tease this boy because he has freckles. Would you like to be treated like that?", the child's response would be: "But I don't have freckles, so no one will tease me! " It is too difficult for a child at the stage of concrete operations to realize an abstract reality different from his reality. A child at this stage can invent situations and imagine objects that do not exist in reality.

The main ability that appears at the stage of formal operations (from 11 to about 15 years old) is the ability to deal with possible, with the hypothetical, and perceive external reality as a special case of what is possible, what could be. Knowledge becomes hypothetical-deductive. The child acquires the ability to think in sentences and establish formal relationships (inclusion, conjunction, disjunction, etc.) between them. The child at this stage is also able to systematically identify all the variables that are essential for solving the problem, and systematically sort through all possible combinations these variables.

Language and thinking

Criticism of J. Piaget in Russian psychology

Differences in the views of Piaget and domestic psychologists are manifested in the understanding of the source and driving forces of mental development. Piaget viewed mental development as a spontaneous, learning-independent process that obeys biological laws. Domestic psychologists see the source of the child's mental development in his environment, and the development itself is considered as a process of appropriation by the child of socio-historical experience. This explains the role of education in mental development, which is especially emphasized by Russian psychologists and underestimated by Piaget. Critically analyzing the operational concept of intelligence proposed by Piaget, domestic specialists do not consider logic as the only and main criterion of intelligence and do not evaluate the level of formal operations as the highest level of development of intellectual activity. Experimental studies (

and mathematicians, which are tautologies, are "empty", "empty",
"do not say anything about reality" and are admissible in science only as special
former syntactic expressions (logical syntax elements) - see:
R. Carnap. Logical syntax of language. london, New York. 1937; Int-
production to Semantics. Cambridge, Mass., 1942.
In contrast to this understanding, J. Piaget defends the view
according to which the laws of logic and the principles of mathematics are
real constructions of the subject; their structure J. Piaget
lurking to find out within the framework of his operational concept of intellectual
that. It should be noted that against the concept of "emptiness" for-
many modern logicians act as the cons of logic; see for example:
P. V. Tavanets. On the so-called tautological character of logic.
"Questions of Philosophy", 1957, No. 2; G.Frey. Die Logic als empirische
Wissenschaft, in book. "La Theorie de l "argumentation". Louvain-Paris, 1963,
pp.240-2(32; however, in this case, the criticism proceeds according to its own logical
(and not like J. Piaget - on psychological and logical grounds).
The antinomy of the class of all classes. Antinomies (paradoxes, aporias) -
contradictions in reasoning that arise when all conditions are met
viy logically correct reasoning. An example of an antinomy is
serve as the antinomy “Liar” formulated in ancient philosophy:
“One Cretan said: “All Cretans lie.” What did he say - the truth or
False?". If his statement is true, then it must be false.
if it is false, then the Cretan has spoken the truth.
The antinomy of the class of all classes (or the set of all normal
sets, that is, those that are not elements of themselves)
discovered by B. Russell in 1902 (W. Russell. On finite and infinite car-
dinal numbers. "American journal of mathematics", 1902, pp. 378-383;
see also: S. K. Klini. Introduction to metamathematics. M., IIL,
1957, p. 40). Translating this antinomy into ordinary language, Ras-
sat gives the example of a village barber who shaves
all those and only those inhabitants of their village who do not shave themselves.
Should he shave himself? Both positive and negative
the answers to this question are equally provable.
Paradoxes like Russell's paradox arise with a certain form
malization of the reasoning process, the change of which (for example, through
the theory of types, distributing various objects - individuals, properties
va individuals, properties of properties, etc. by type) makes it possible to avoid
these paradoxes. J. Piaget refers to this paradox as
argument in favor of an operational interpretation of logic and mathematics.
Logistics is a term proposed in 1901 by L. Couture, Itel-
son and A. Lalande to designate a new, mathematical logic.
At present, the term "mathematical logic" is more common.
ka" (sometimes "symbolic logic"), but French and some
other researchers often use the term "logistics". Wide
uses this term in his works and J. Piaget.
Axiomatic method in logic. In the concept of J. Piaget, it is essential
important role belongs to the proof of the impossibility of using
for the psychological study of axiomatic constructions of logic.
This problem, in particular, is raised by him in the second chapter of "Psychology

Other publications of the author

Main publications:

Piaget J. Selected psychological works. - M., 1994.
Piaget J. Speech and thinking of the child. - M., 1994.
Piaget J. Schemes of action and language acquisition // Semiotics. - M., 1983. - S. 133-136.
Piaget J. Genetic aspect of language and thinking // Psycholinguistics. - M., 1984.
Piaget J. genetic epistemology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2004. - 160 p. (and also: Questions of Philosophy. - 1993. - No. 5)
Piaget J. Psychology of intelligence. // Fav. psychol. works. - M., 1969.
Piaget J. How do children form mathematical concepts. // Questions of psychology, 1966, No. 4.
Piaget J. Piaget's theory. // History of foreign psychology. 30s - 60s. Texts. M., 1986.

Works:

Piaget, J. The Origins of Intelligence in Children (New York: International University Press, 1952).
Piaget, J. The Moral Judgment of the Child (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1932) .
Piaget, J. The construction of reality in the child (New York: Basic Books, 1954).
Piaget, J. Play, Dreams and Imitation in Childhood (New York: Norton, 1962).
Piaget, J. The Language and Thought of the Child (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1962).
Piaget, J. With Inhelder, B., The Psychology of the Child (New York: Basic Books, 1962) .
Piaget, J. With Inhelder, B., The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence (New York: Basic Books, 1958) .
Piaget, J. The Child's Conception of the World (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1928) .
Piaget, J. The Psychology of Intelligence (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1951).
Piaget, J. With Inhelder, B., The Child's Conception of Space (New York: W.W. Norton, 1967).
Piaget, J."Piaget's theory" in P. Mussen (ed.), Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1. (4th ed., New York: Wiley, 1983).
Piaget, J. The Child's Conception of Number (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1952) .
Piaget, J. Structuralism (New York: Harper & Row, 1970).
Piaget, J. Genetic epistemology (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971).
Piaget, J. The early growth of logic in the child (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964) .
Piaget, J. Biology and Knowledge (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971).
Piaget, J. Science of education and the psychology of the child (New York: Orion Press, 1970).
Piaget, J. The child's conception of physical causality (London: Kegan Paul, 1930) .
Piaget, J. Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977).
Piaget, J. Six psychological studies (New York: Random House, 1967).
Piaget, J. The Equilibration of Cognitive Structures: The Central Problem of Intellectual Development (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985) .
Piaget, J. Child's Conception of Geometry (New York, Basic Books, 1960).
Piaget, J. To understand is to invent: The future of education (New York: Grossman Publishers, 1973) .
Piaget, J. Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini (ed.), Language and learning: the debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980) .
Piaget, J. The Principles of Genetic Epistemology (New York: Basic Books, 1972).
Piaget, J. The Grasp of Consciousness: Action and concept in the young child (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1977) .
Piaget, J. The Mechanisms of Perception (New York: Basic Books, 1969).
Piaget, J. Psychology and Epistemology: Towards a Theory of Knowledge (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972)
Piaget, J. Logic and Psychology (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1953).
Piaget, J. Memory and intelligence (New York: Basic Books, 1973)
Piaget, J. The Origin of the Idea of Chance in Children (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975).
Piaget, J. Mental imagery in the child: a study of the development of imaginal representation (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971) .
Piaget, J. Intelligence and Affectivity. Their Relationship during Child Development (Palo Alto: Annual Reviews, 1981) .
Piaget, J., Garcia, R. Psychogenesis and the History of Science (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989) (1961).
Piaget, J. The Growth of the Mind.

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Biography

Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, the capital of the French-speaking canton of Neuchâtel, Switzerland. His father, Arthur Piaget, was a professor of medieval literature at the University of Neuchâtel. Piaget began to take an early interest in biology, especially mollusks, and even published several scientific papers before graduating from school. Piaget began his long scientific career at the age of ten, when in 1907 he published a short note on albino sparrows. During his scientific life, Piaget wrote more than 60 books and several hundred articles.

In 1923, Piaget married Valentin Schatenau, who was his student. The couple had three children, whom Piaget studied from childhood. In 1929, Piaget accepted an invitation to take the post of director of the UNESCO International Bureau of Education, at the head of which he remained until 1968. Piaget died in Geneva on September 16, 1980.

Piaget's main idea is that the child's understanding of reality is a coherent and consistent whole that allows him to adapt to his environment. As the child grows, he goes through several stages, each of which reaches "balance".

The first turning point, at about a year and a half, is also the end of the "sensomotor period". A child at this age is able to solve various non-verbal tasks: he is looking for objects that have disappeared from view, i.e. understands that the external world exists constantly, even when it is not perceived. The kid can find his way by making a detour, uses the simplest tools to get the desired object, can anticipate the consequences of external influences (for example, that the ball will roll downhill under the influence of gravity, and if you push the swing, they will swing back to their previous position).

The next stage, the "pre-operational stage", is characterized by a symbolic or conceptual understanding of the world and is associated with language acquisition. Around the age of seven, the child reaches the stage of "concrete operations". Now he understands that the number of objects does not depend on whether they are laid out in a long row or in a compact pile; earlier he could decide that there were more objects in a long row.

The last stage occurs in early adolescence and is called the "formal operations" stage. At this stage, a purely symbolic representation of objects and their relations becomes available, the ability to manipulate them in the mind appears. This concept has been called genetic epistemology; in addition, Piaget hypothesized that science itself can also be viewed from a genetic point of view, as an evolutionary process, and that the scientific view of the nature of reality is a consequence of the establishment of equilibrium, and not the gradual discovery of an increasing number of "truths".

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