As in the ancient Russian state. When was the state of Russia formed?

There are several historiographic names of the state that prevailed in the literature at different times - "Old Russian State", "Ancient Russia", "Kievan Rus", "Kievan State". At present, three historiographic names are most common - "Old Russian state", "Kievan Rus" and "Ancient Rus". The definition of "Old Russian" is not connected with the division of antiquity and the Middle Ages generally accepted in historiography in Europe in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. In relation to Russia, it is usually used to refer to the so-called pre-Mongol period of the 9th - mid-13th centuries, in order to distinguish this era from the following periods of Russian history.

Old Russian state- a state that arose in the early Middle Ages in Eastern Europe, in 862 as a result of the unification of a number of East Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty of the two main centers of the Eastern Slavs - Novgorod and Kyiv, as well as lands (settlements in the area of ​​​​Staraya Ladoga, Gnezdovo ).

"Varangians", Vasnetsov V.M. 1909

An event that took place in 862 A.D. received the conditional name "calling of the Varangians." In the fourth-seventh centuries of our era, the migration of peoples took place in Europe, this migration also captured the Slavic tribes. In the course of these processes, an intertribal union begins to gradually take shape, which marked the beginning of our future Russian state. Here is an excerpt from the Old Russian chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years":

"In the summer of 6367 (859). The Varangians from overseas took tribute from the Chud, and from the Slovenes of Novgorod, and from Mary, from all the Krivichi. In the year 6370 (862) they expelled the Varangians overseas and did not give them tribute and began to rule themselves, and there was no truth in them, and generation upon generation rebelled, and there was strife among them, and they began to fight with themselves. And they went across the sea to the Varangians, to Russia. That was the name of those Varangians, Rus, as other Varangians are called Svei (Swedes), others Urmans (Normans), Angles (Normans from England), other Goths (inhabitants of the island of Gotland), and these. Chud Rus (Finns), Slovenes (Novgorod Slavs), and Krivichi (Slavs from the upper Volga) said the following words: "Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no dress in it; go reign and rule over us." And three brothers volunteered with their kind and came. The elder Rurik settled in Novgorod, the other, Sineus, on Beloozero, and the third, Truvor, in Izborsk. The Russian land was nicknamed from them, that is, the land of the Novgorodians: these are Novgorodians from the Varangian family, before they were Slavs. "As it is written in historical sources, in 862 there was an act of voluntary agreement between the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes, who agreed that for the sake of stopping internecine wars, you need to choose a person as a ruler from the outside, who is not connected with any local clan, who was supposed to judge by law, that is, by law.And such a person was Prince Rurik, who laid the foundation for the first Russian dynasty that ruled our state for more than seven centuries. Rurik settled first in Staraya Ladoga, built a fortress there, assumed power in Novgorod under an agreement with local Slavic boyars. After the death of the brothers, Rurik began to rule the state alone. And in 882, as written in historical references, his successor Oleg , who began to rule immediately after the death of Rurik, having killed Askold and Dir (the Normans who had left Rurik earlier), thus conquered Kyiv . After that, he freed the Slavic tribes from the Khazar tribute and subjugated him to his power. This version of the emergence of the formation of the Russian state is confirmed in written sources, for example, the First Novgorod Chronicle and the Tale of Bygone Years. Who is Rurik and where does he come from, the exact answer could not be found, there are a lot of versions. In Staraya Ladoga (Lake Ladoga), according to Russian chronicles, it is suggested that Rurik could be a Scandinavian, a Swede, and even a Norwegian or a Dane and the leader of the Eastern Slavs-Rus. There are such assumptions that Rurik is a reliable person, born around 817. Son of the Danish king Haldvan. Disputes about the calling of the Varangians, led by Rurik, have been going on for about two hundred centuries. But there are certain things, such as:

1. From 862 to 1598, Russia was ruled by the Rurik dynasty and the last tsar from this dynasty was Fedor Ivanovich.

2. Rurik was invited to rule by two Slavic tribes and two Finnish ones.

3. Still, the modern population of the Russian north-west keeps the memory of Rurik (such as Staraya Ladoga, Novgorod, Priozersk). And no matter how scientists argue, whether there was Rurik at all and regardless of whether Rurik’s grave will be found or not in the vicinity of Priozersk, and whether archaeologists and anthropologists will find objects that are associated with his reign. All the same, the history of Russia begins with this name.

The Old Russian state arose on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on the lands of the East Slavic tribes - the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyans, then embracing the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Radimichi, Severyans. During its heyday, the Old Russian state covered the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west, to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north.

Map of the settlement of peoples on the eve of the formation of the state

The formation of the state was preceded by a long period (since the 6th century) of the maturation of its prerequisites in the depths of military democracy. During the existence of the Old Russian state, the East Slavic tribes formed into the Old Russian people. Old Russian state (Old Russian and Old Slavic Russia, Russian Land, Greek Ῥωσία, Latin Russia, Ruthenia, Ruscia, Ruzzia, other Scandinavian Garðar, later Garðaríki).
By the middle of the 12th century, the ancient Russian state had entered a state of feudal fragmentation and actually broke up into a dozen and a half separate Russian principalities ruled by different branches of the Rurikids. Kyiv, having lost its political influence in favor of several new centers of power, continued to be formally considered the main table of Russia until the Mongol invasion (1237-1240), and the Kiev principality remained in the collective possession of the Russian princes.

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1 - First used by Constantine Porphyrogenitus in the treatise "On the Administration of the Empire" (948-952). (Soloviev A.V. The Byzantine name of Russia // Byzantine time book. - 1957. - No. 12. - P. 134-155.)
2 - The spelling Ruscia is typical for Latin texts from Northern Germany and Central Europe, Ruzzia - for Southern Germany, various variations of Rus (s) i, Rus (s) ia - for Romance-speaking countries, England and Scandinavia. Along with these forms, from the beginning of the 12th century, the book term Rut(h)enia began to be used in Europe, formed by consonance on behalf of the ancient people of the Rutens. (Nazarenko A.V. Ancient Russia on international routes: Interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, political relations of the 9th-12th centuries - M .: Languages ​​of Russian culture, 2001. ISBN 5-7859-0085-8. - P. 49-50 )
3 - The designation of Russia in Swedish, Norwegian and Icelandic sources, including runic inscriptions, skalds and sagas. It is first found in the vis of Hallfred the Hard Skald (996). The toponym is based on the root garđ- with the meaning "city", "fortified settlement". Since the 12th century, it has been supplanted by the form Garðaríki - lit. "Country of cities" (Ancient Russia in the light of foreign sources. - S. 464-465.).

Kievan Rus or Old Russian state- a medieval state in Eastern Europe, which arose in the 9th century as a result of the unification of the East Slavic tribes under the rule of the princes of the Rurik dynasty.

In the period of its highest prosperity, it occupied the territory from the Taman Peninsula in the south, the Dniester and the upper reaches of the Vistula in the west to the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north.

By the middle of the XII century, it entered a state of fragmentation and actually broke up into a dozen separate principalities, ruled by different branches of the Rurikovich. Political ties were maintained between the principalities, Kyiv continued to formally remain the main table of Russia, and the Kiev principality was considered as the collective possession of all the Rurikids. The end of Kievan Rus is considered the Mongol invasion (1237-1240), after which the Russian lands ceased to form a single political entity, and Kyiv fell into decay for a long time and finally lost its nominal capital functions.

In chronicle sources, the state is called "Rus" or "Russian land", in Byzantine sources - "Rosia".

Term

The definition of “Old Russian” is not connected with the division of antiquity and the Middle Ages generally accepted in historiography in Europe in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. In relation to Russia, it is usually used to refer to the so-called. "pre-Mongolian" period of the IX - the middle of the XIII centuries, in order to distinguish this era from the following periods of Russian history.

The term "Kievan Rus" arose at the end of the 18th century. In modern historiography, it is used both to refer to a single state that existed until the middle of the 12th century, and for a wider period of the middle of the 12th - the middle of the 13th centuries, when Kyiv remained the center of the country and Russia was ruled by a single princely family on the principles of "collective suzerainty".

Pre-revolutionary historians, starting with N. M. Karamzin, adhered to the idea of ​​transferring the political center of Russia in 1169 from Kyiv to Vladimir, dating back to the works of Moscow scribes, or to Vladimir and Galich. However, in modern historiography, these points of view are not popular, as they are not confirmed in the sources.

The problem of the emergence of statehood

There are two main hypotheses for the formation of the Old Russian state. According to the Norman theory, based on the Tale of Bygone Years of the XII century and numerous Western European and Byzantine sources, statehood was introduced to Russia from outside by the Varangians - the brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor in 862. The founders of the Norman theory are German historians Bayer, Miller, Schlozer, who worked at the Russian Academy of Sciences. The point of view about the external origin of the Russian monarchy was generally held by Nikolai Karamzin, who followed the versions of The Tale of Bygone Years.

The anti-Norman theory is based on the concept of the impossibility of introducing statehood from outside, on the idea of ​​the emergence of the state as a stage in the internal development of society. Mikhail Lomonosov was considered the founder of this theory in Russian historiography. In addition, there are different points of view on the origin of the Varangians themselves. Scientists classified as Normanists considered them Scandinavians (usually Swedes), some anti-Normanists, starting with Lomonosov, suggest their origin from the West Slavic lands. There are also intermediate versions of localization - in Finland, Prussia, another part of the Baltic states. The problem of the ethnicity of the Varangians is independent of the question of the emergence of statehood.

In modern science, the point of view prevails, according to which the rigid opposition of "Normanism" and "anti-Normanism" is largely politicized. The prerequisites for the original statehood among the Eastern Slavs were not seriously denied either by Miller, or Schlözer, or Karamzin, and the external (Scandinavian or other) origin of the ruling dynasty is a fairly common phenomenon in the Middle Ages, which in no way proves the inability of the people to create a state or, more specifically, the institution of a monarchy. Questions about whether Rurik was a real historical person, what is the origin of the chronicle Varangians, whether the ethnonym (and then the name of the state) is associated with them Russia, continue to be debatable in modern Russian historical science. Western historians generally follow the concept of Normanism.

Story

Education of Kievan Rus

Kievan Rus arose on the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks" on the lands of the East Slavic tribes - the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Polyans, then embracing the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Polochans, Radimichi, Severyans, Vyatichi.

According to the chronicle legend, the founders of Kyiv are the rulers of the Polyan tribe - the brothers Kyi, Shchek and Khoriv. According to archaeological excavations conducted in Kyiv in the 19th-20th centuries, already in the middle of the 1st millennium AD. e. there was a settlement on the site of Kyiv. Arab writers of the 10th century (al-Istarkhi, Ibn Khordadbeh, Ibn-Khaukal) later speak of Kuyab as a large city. Ibn Haukal wrote: “The king lives in a city called Kuyaba, which is larger than Bolgar ... Russ constantly trade with Khazar and Rum (Byzantium)”

The first information about the state of the Rus dates back to the first third of the 9th century: in 839, the ambassadors of the kagan of the Ros people are mentioned, who first arrived in Constantinople, and from there to the court of the Frankish emperor Louis the Pious. Since that time, the ethnonym "Rus" has also become famous. The term "Kievan Rus" appears for the first time in historical studies of the 18th-19th centuries.

In 860 (The Tale of Bygone Years erroneously refers it to 866) Russia makes the first campaign against Constantinople. Greek sources associate it with the so-called first baptism of Russia, after which a diocese may have arisen in Russia, and the ruling elite (possibly led by Askold) adopted Christianity.

In 862, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, the Slavic and Finno-Ugric tribes called for the reign of the Varangians.

“In the year 6370 (862). They expelled the Varangians across the sea, and did not give them tribute, and began to rule themselves, and there was no truth among them, and clan stood against clan, and they had strife, and began to fight with each other. And they said to themselves: "Let's look for a prince who would rule over us and judge by right." And they went across the sea to the Varangians, to Russia. Those Varangians were called Rus, as others are called Swedes, and others are Normans and Angles, and still others are Gotlanders, and so are these. The Russians said Chud, Slovenes, Krivichi and all: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us." And three brothers were elected with their clans, and they took all of Russia with them, and they came, and the eldest, Rurik, sat in Novgorod, and the other, Sineus, on Beloozero, and the third, Truvor, in Izborsk. And from those Varangians the Russian land was nicknamed. Novgorodians are those people from the Varangian family, and before they were Slovenes.

In 862 (the date is approximate, like the entire early chronology of the Chronicle), the Varangians, Rurik’s combatants Askold and Dir, sailing to Constantinople, seeking to establish full control over the most important trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, establish their power over Kyiv.

Rurik died in 879 in Novgorod. The reign was transferred to Oleg, the regent under the young son of Rurik Igor.

The reign of Oleg the Prophet

In 882, according to chronicle chronology, Prince Oleg, a relative of Rurik, set off on a campaign from Novgorod to the south. On the way, they captured Smolensk and Lyubech, established their power there and put their people on the reign. Further, Oleg, with the Novgorod army and a mercenary Varangian squad, under the guise of merchants, captured Kyiv, killed Askold and Dir, who ruled there, and declared Kyiv the capital of his state (“And Oleg, the prince, sat down in Kyiv, and Oleg said: “May this be the mother of Russian cities “.”); the dominant religion was paganism, although Kyiv also had a Christian minority.

Oleg conquered the Drevlyans, Northerners and Radimichis, the last two unions before that paid tribute to the Khazars.

As a result of the victorious campaign against Byzantium, the first written agreements were concluded in 907 and 911, which provided for preferential terms of trade for Russian merchants (trade duties were canceled, repairs of ships were provided, accommodation for the night), the solution of legal and military issues. The tribes of Radimichi, Severyans, Drevlyans, Krivichi were taxed. According to the chronicle version, Oleg, who bore the title of Grand Duke, ruled for more than 30 years. Rurik's own son Igor took the throne after the death of Oleg around 912 and ruled until 945.

Igor Rurikovich

Igor made two military campaigns against Byzantium. The first, in 941, ended unsuccessfully. It was also preceded by an unsuccessful military campaign against Khazaria, during which Russia, acting at the request of Byzantium, attacked the Khazar city of Samkerts on the Taman Peninsula, but was defeated by the Khazar commander Pesach, and then turned its weapons against Byzantium. The second campaign against Byzantium took place in 944. It ended with an agreement that confirmed many of the provisions of the previous agreements of 907 and 911, but abolished duty-free trade. In 943 or 944, a campaign was made against Berdaa. In 945, Igor was killed while collecting tribute from the Drevlyans. After Igor's death, due to the infancy of his son Svyatoslav, real power was in the hands of Igor's widow, Princess Olga. She became the first ruler of the Old Russian state who officially adopted Christianity of the Byzantine rite (according to the most reasoned version, in 957, although other dates are also proposed). However, around 959 Olga invited the German bishop Adalbert and priests of the Latin rite to Russia (after the failure of their mission, they were forced to leave Kyiv).

Svyatoslav Igorevich

Around 962, the matured Svyatoslav took power into his own hands. His first action was the subjugation of the Vyatichi (964), who were the last of all East Slavic tribes to pay tribute to the Khazars. In 965, Svyatoslav made a campaign against the Khazar Khaganate, taking by storm its main cities: Sarkel, Semender and the capital Itil. On the site of the city of Sarkel, he built the Belaya Vezha fortress. Svyatoslav also carried out two trips to Bulgaria, where he intended to create his own state with its capital in the Danube region. He was killed in battle with the Pechenegs while returning to Kyiv from an unsuccessful campaign in 972.

After the death of Svyatoslav, civil strife broke out for the right to the throne (972-978 or 980). The eldest son Yaropolk became the great prince of Kyiv, Oleg received the Drevlyansk lands, Vladimir - Novgorod. In 977, Yaropolk defeated Oleg's squad, Oleg died. Vladimir fled "over the sea", but returned after 2 years with the Varangian squad. During the civil strife, Svyatoslav's son Vladimir Svyatoslavich (r. 980-1015) defended his rights to the throne. Under him, the formation of the state territory of Ancient Russia was completed, the Cherven cities and Carpathian Rus were annexed.

Characteristics of the state in the IX-X centuries.

Kievan Rus united vast territories inhabited by East Slavic, Finno-Ugric and Baltic tribes under its rule. In the annals, the state was called Rus; the word "Russian" in combination with other words was found in various spellings: both with one "s" and with a double one; both with "b" and without it. In a narrow sense, "Rus" meant the territory of Kyiv (with the exception of the Drevlyansk and Dregovichi lands), Chernigov-Seversk (with the exception of the Radimich and Vyatichi lands) and Pereyaslav lands; it is in this sense that the term "Rus" was used, for example, in Novgorod sources until the 13th century.

The head of state bore the title of Grand Duke, Prince of Russia. Unofficially, other prestigious titles could sometimes be attached to it, including the Turkic kagan and the Byzantine king. Princely power was hereditary. In addition to the princes, the grand ducal boyars and "husbands" participated in the administration of the territories. These were combatants appointed by the prince. The boyars commanded special squads, territorial garrisons (for example, Pretich commanded the Chernigov squad), which, if necessary, united into a single army. Under the prince, one of the boyar governors also stood out, who often performed the functions of real government, such governors under the juvenile princes were Oleg under Igor, Sveneld under Olga, Svyatoslav and Yaropolk, Dobrynya under Vladimir. At the local level, princely power dealt with tribal self-government in the form of a veche and "city elders".

Druzhina

Druzhina in the period of IX-X centuries. was hired. A significant part of it was the newcomers Varangians. It was also replenished by people from the Baltic lands and local tribes. The size of the annual payment of a mercenary is estimated by historians in different ways. Wages were paid in silver, gold and furs. Usually a warrior received about 8-9 Kyiv hryvnias (more than 200 silver dirhams) per year, but by the beginning of the 11th century, the pay for an ordinary soldier was 1 northern hryvnia, which is much less. Helmsmen on ships, elders and townspeople received more (10 hryvnias). In addition, the squad was fed at the expense of the prince. Initially, this was expressed in the form of dining, and then turned into one of the forms of taxes in kind, "feeding", the maintenance of the squad by the tax-paying population during polyudya. Among the squads subordinate to the Grand Duke, his personal “small”, or junior, squad, which included 400 soldiers, stands out. The Old Russian army also included a tribal militia, which could reach several thousand in each tribe. The total number of the Old Russian army reached from 30 to 80 thousand people.

Taxes (tribute)

The form of taxes in Ancient Russia was tribute, which was paid by subject tribes. Most often, the unit of taxation was "smoke", that is, a house, or a family hearth. The size of the tax has traditionally been one skin from the smoke. In some cases, from the Vyatichi tribe, a coin was taken from a ral (plough). The form of tribute collection was polyudye, when the prince with his retinue traveled around his subjects from November to April. Russia was divided into several taxable districts, polyudye in the Kiev district passed through the lands of the Drevlyans, Dregovichi, Krivichi, Radimichi and Northerners. A special district was Novgorod, paying about 3,000 hryvnias. According to a late Hungarian legend, the maximum amount of tribute in the 10th century was 10,000 marks (30,000 or more hryvnias). The collection of tribute was carried out by squads of several hundred soldiers. The dominant ethno-class group of the population, which was called "Rus" paid the prince a tenth of their annual income.

In 946, after the suppression of the uprising of the Drevlyans, Princess Olga carried out a tax reform, streamlining the collection of tribute. She established "lessons", that is, the amount of tribute, and created "graveyards", fortresses on the path of polyudy, in which princely administrators lived and where tribute was brought. This form of tribute collection and the tribute itself was called "cart". When paying the tax, subjects received clay seals with a princely sign, which insured them from re-collection. The reform contributed to the centralization of grand ducal power and the weakening of the power of tribal princes.

Right

In the 10th century, customary law operated in Russia, which is called the “Russian Law” in the sources. Its norms are reflected in the treaties of Russia and Byzantium, in the Scandinavian sagas and in Yaroslav's Pravda. They concerned the relationship between equal people, Russia, one of the institutions was "vira" - a fine for murder. Laws guaranteed property relations, including ownership of slaves (“servants”).

The principle of inheritance of power in the IX-X centuries is unknown. The heirs were often underage (Igor Rurikovich, Svyatoslav Igorevich). In the XI century, princely power in Russia was transferred along the "ladder", that is, not necessarily the son, but the eldest in the family (the uncle had an advantage over the nephews). At the turn of the XI-XII centuries, two principles clashed, and a struggle broke out between the direct heirs and the side lines.

monetary system

In the X century, a more or less unified monetary system developed, focused on the Byzantine liter and the Arab dirham. The main monetary units were the hryvnia (monetary and weight unit of ancient Russia), kuna, nogata and rezana. They had a silver and fur expression.

State type

Historians assess the nature of the state of this period in different ways: “barbarian state”, “military democracy”, “druzhina period”, “Norman period”, “military-commercial state”, “folding of the early feudal monarchy”.

Baptism of Russia and its heyday

Under Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich in 988, Christianity became the official religion of Russia. Having become the prince of Kyiv, Vladimir faced the increased Pecheneg threat. To protect against nomads, he builds a line of fortresses on the border. It was during the time of Vladimir that the action of many Russian epics telling about the exploits of heroes takes place.

Crafts and trade. Monuments of writing (“The Tale of Bygone Years”, the Novgorod Codex, the Ostromir Gospel, Lives) and architecture (the Church of the Tithes, St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv and the cathedrals of the same name in Novgorod and Polotsk) were created. The high level of literacy of the inhabitants of Russia is evidenced by numerous birch bark letters that have come down to our time). Russia traded with the southern and western Slavs, Scandinavia, Byzantium, Western Europe, the peoples of the Caucasus and Central Asia.

After the death of Vladimir in Russia, a new civil strife takes place. Svyatopolk the Accursed in 1015 kills his brothers Boris (according to another version, Boris was killed by Yaroslav's Scandinavian mercenaries), Gleb and Svyatoslav. Boris and Gleb in 1071 were canonized as saints. Svyatopolk himself is defeated by Yaroslav and dies in exile.

The reign of Yaroslav the Wise (1019 - 1054) was at times the highest flowering of the state. Public relations were regulated by the collection of laws "Russian Truth" and princely charters. Yaroslav the Wise pursued an active foreign policy. He intermarried with many ruling dynasties of Europe, which testified to the wide international recognition of Russia in the European Christian world. Intensive stone construction is unfolding. In 1036, Yaroslav defeats the Pechenegs near Kyiv and their raids on Russia stop.

Changes in public administration at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 12th centuries.

During the baptism of Russia in all its lands, the power of the sons of Vladimir I and the power of Orthodox bishops, who were subordinate to the Kyiv Metropolitan, were established. Now all the princes who acted as vassals of the Kyiv Grand Duke were only from the Rurik family. The Scandinavian sagas mention fief possessions of the Vikings, but they were located on the outskirts of Russia and on the newly annexed lands, so at the time of writing The Tale of Bygone Years, they already seemed like a relic. The Rurik princes waged a fierce struggle with the remaining tribal princes (Vladimir Monomakh mentions the Vyatichi prince Khodota and his son). This contributed to the centralization of power.

The power of the Grand Duke reached its highest level under Vladimir, Yaroslav the Wise, and later under Vladimir Monomakh. Attempts to strengthen it, but less successfully, were also made by Izyaslav Yaroslavich. The position of the dynasty was strengthened by numerous international dynastic marriages: Anna Yaroslavna and the French king, Vsevolod Yaroslavich and the Byzantine princess, etc.

From the time of Vladimir or, according to some reports, Yaropolk Svyatoslavich, instead of a monetary salary, the prince began to distribute land to combatants. If initially these were cities for feeding, then in the 11th century the combatants received villages. Together with the villages, which became estates, the boyar title was also granted. The boyars began to make up the senior squad, which by type was a feudal militia. The younger squad (“youths”, “children”, “gridi”), who was with the prince, lived off feeding from the princely villages and the war. To protect the southern borders, a policy of resettlement of the "best men" of the northern tribes to the south was carried out, and agreements were also concluded with allied nomads, "black hoods" (torks, berendeys and pechenegs). The services of the hired Varangian squad were basically abandoned during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise.

After Yaroslav the Wise, the "ladder" principle of land inheritance in the Rurik dynasty was finally established. The eldest in the family (not by age, but by line of kinship), received Kyiv and became the Grand Duke, all other lands were divided among members of the family and distributed according to seniority. Power passed from brother to brother, from uncle to nephew. The second place in the hierarchy of tables was occupied by Chernihiv. At the death of one of the members of the family, all the younger Ruriks moved to the lands corresponding to their seniority. When new members of the clan appeared, they were assigned a lot - a city with land (volost). In 1097, the principle of mandatory allocation of inheritance to the princes was enshrined.

Over time, the church (“monastic estates”) began to possess a significant part of the land. Since 996, the population has paid tithes to the church. The number of dioceses, starting from 4, grew. The chair of the metropolitan, appointed by the patriarch of Constantinople, began to be located in Kyiv, and under Yaroslav the Wise, the metropolitan was first elected from among the Russian priests, in 1051 he became close to Vladimir and his son Hilarion. The monasteries and their elected heads, abbots, began to have great influence. The Kiev-Pechersk Monastery becomes the center of Orthodoxy.

The boyars and the retinue formed special councils under the prince. The prince also consulted with the metropolitan, bishops and abbots, who made up the church council. With the complication of the princely hierarchy, by the end of the 11th century, princely congresses (“snems”) began to gather. There were vechas in the cities, on which the boyars often relied to support their own political demands (the uprisings in Kyiv in 1068 and 1113).

In the 11th - early 12th centuries, the first written code of laws was formed - "Russian Pravda", which was consistently replenished with articles "Pravda Yaroslav" (c. 1015-1016), "Pravda Yaroslavichi" (c. 1072) and "Charter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich" (c. 1113). Russkaya Pravda reflected the growing differentiation of the population (now the size of the virus depended on the social status of the murdered), regulated the position of such categories of the population as servants, serfs, smerds, purchases and ryadovichi.

"Pravda Yaroslava" equalized the rights of "Rusyns" and "Slovenes". This, along with Christianization and other factors, contributed to the formation of a new ethnic community, which was aware of its unity and historical origin.
Since the end of the 10th century, Russia has known its own coin production - silver and gold coins of Vladimir I, Svyatopolk, Yaroslav the Wise and other princes.

Decay

The Principality of Polotsk separated from Kyiv for the first time at the beginning of the 11th century. Having concentrated all the other Russian lands under his rule only 21 years after the death of his father, Yaroslav the Wise, dying in 1054, divided them among his five surviving sons. After the death of the two younger of them, all the lands were concentrated in the hands of the three elders: Izyaslav of Kyiv, Svyatoslav of Chernigov and Vsevolod Pereyaslavsky (“the triumvirate of Yaroslavichs”). After the death of Svyatoslav in 1076, the Kyiv princes attempted to deprive his sons of the Chernigov inheritance, and they resorted to the help of the Polovtsy, whose raids began as early as 1061 (immediately after the defeat of the Torques by the Russian princes in the steppes), although for the first time the Polovtsy were used in strife by Vladimir Monomakh (against Vseslav Polotsky). In this struggle, Izyaslav of Kyiv (1078) and the son of Vladimir Monomakh Izyaslav (1096) died. At the Lyubech Congress (1097), called to stop civil strife and unite the princes to protect themselves from the Polovtsians, the principle was proclaimed: "Let everyone keep his fatherland." Thus, while maintaining the right of the ladder, in the event of the death of one of the princes, the movement of heirs was limited to their patrimony. This made it possible to stop the strife and join forces to fight the Polovtsy, which was moved deep into the steppes. However, this also opened the way to political fragmentation, as a separate dynasty was established in each land, and the Grand Duke of Kyiv became the first among equals, losing the role of overlord.

In the second quarter of the 12th century, Kievan Rus actually broke up into independent principalities. The modern historiographic tradition considers the chronological beginning of the period of fragmentation to be 1132, when, after the death of Mstislav the Great, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Polotsk (1132) and Novgorod (1136) ceased to recognize the power of the Kyiv prince, and the title itself became an object of struggle between various dynastic and territorial associations of the Rurikovichs. The chronicler under 1134, in connection with the split among the Monomakhoviches, wrote down "the whole Russian land was torn apart."

In 1169, the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, Andrei Bogolyubsky, having captured Kyiv, for the first time in the practice of inter-princely strife, did not reign in it, but gave it to inheritance. From that moment on, Kyiv began to gradually lose the political, and then the cultural attributes of the all-Russian center. The political center under Andrei Bogolyubsky and Vsevolod the Big Nest moved to Vladimir, whose prince also began to bear the title of great.

Kyiv, unlike other principalities, did not become the property of any one dynasty, but served as a constant bone of contention for all strong princes. In 1203, it was again plundered by the Smolensk prince Rurik Rostislavich, who fought against the Galician-Volyn prince Roman Mstislavich. In the battle on the Kalka River (1223), in which almost all South Russian princes took part, the first clash of Russia with the Mongols took place. The weakening of the southern Russian principalities increased the onslaught from the Hungarian and Lithuanian feudal lords, but at the same time contributed to the strengthening of the influence of the Vladimir princes in Chernigov (1226), Novgorod (1231), Kyiv (in 1236 Yaroslav Vsevolodovich occupied Kyiv for two years, while his elder brother Yuri remained reign in Vladimir) and Smolensk (1236-1239). During the Mongol invasion of Russia, which began in 1237, in December 1240, Kyiv was turned into ruins. It was received by Vladimir princes Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, recognized by the Mongols as the oldest in Russia, and later by his son Alexander Nevsky. However, they did not move to Kyiv, remaining in their ancestral Vladimir. In 1299, the Metropolitan of Kyiv moved his residence there. In some church and literary sources, for example, in the statements of the Patriarch of Constantinople and Vytautas at the end of the 14th century, Kyiv continued to be considered the capital at a later time, but by that time it was already a provincial city of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The title of "great princes of all Russia" from the beginning of the 14th century began to be worn by the princes of Vladimir.

The nature of the statehood of Russian lands

At the beginning of the XIII century, on the eve of the Mongol invasion in Russia, there were about 15 relatively territorially stable principalities (in turn divided into destinies), three of which: Kiev, Novgorod and Galicia were objects of the all-Russian struggle, and the rest were controlled by their own branches of the Rurikovich. The most powerful princely dynasties were Chernigov Olgovichi, Smolensk Rostislavichi, Volyn Izyaslavichi and Suzdal Yurievichi. After the invasion, almost all Russian lands entered a new round of fragmentation, and in the 14th century the number of great and specific principalities reached approximately 250.

The only all-Russian political body remained the congress of princes, which mainly decided the issues of the struggle against the Polovtsy. The Church also maintained its relative unity (excluding the emergence of local cults of saints and the veneration of the cult of local relics) headed by the metropolitan and fought various kinds of regional "heresies" by convening councils. However, the position of the church was weakened by the strengthening of tribal pagan beliefs in the XII-XIII centuries. Religious authority and "zabozhny" (repression) were weakened. The candidacy of the archbishop of Veliky Novgorod was proposed by the Novgorod veche, there are also known cases of the expulsion of the lord (archbishop) ..

During the period of fragmentation of Kievan Rus, political power passed from the hands of the prince and the younger squad to the intensified boyars. If earlier the boyars had business, political and economic relations with the whole family of Rurikoviches headed by the Grand Duke, now they have with individual families of specific princes.

In the Principality of Kiev, the boyars, in order to reduce the intensity of the struggle between the princely dynasties, in a number of cases supported the duumvirate (coordination) of the princes and even resorted to the physical elimination of the alien princes (Yuri Dolgoruky was poisoned). The Kiev boyars sympathized with the authorities of the senior branch of the descendants of Mstislav the Great, but external pressure was too strong for the position of the local nobility to become decisive in the choice of princes. In the Novgorod land, which, like Kyiv, did not become the patrimony of the specific princely branch of the Rurik family, retaining its all-Russian significance, and during the anti-princely uprising, a republican system was established - from now on, the prince was invited and expelled by the veche. In the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the princely power was traditionally strong and sometimes even prone to despotism. There is a known case when the boyars (Kuchkovichi) and the younger squad physically eliminated the prince of the “autocratic” Andrei Bogolyubsky. In the southern Russian lands, city vechas played a huge role in the political struggle, there were also vechas in the Vladimir-Suzdal land (there are references to them up to the 14th century). In the Galician land, there was a unique case of the election of a prince from among the boyars.

The main type of troops was the feudal militia, the senior squad received personal inheritable land rights. For the defense of the city, urban district and settlements, the city militia was used. In Veliky Novgorod, the princely squad was actually hired in relation to the republican authorities, the lord had a special regiment, the townspeople made up a “thousand” (militia led by a thousand), there was also a boyar militia formed from the inhabitants of the “pyatins” (five dependent on the Novgorod boyar families of regions of the Novgorod land). The army of a separate principality did not exceed the size of 8,000 people. The total number of squads and city militia by 1237, according to historians, was about 100 thousand people.

During the period of fragmentation, several monetary systems developed: there are Novgorod, Kyiv and "Chernihiv" hryvnias. These were silver bars of various sizes and weights. The northern (Novgorod) hryvnia was oriented towards the northern mark, and the southern - towards the Byzantine liter. Kuna had a silver and fur expression, the former related to the latter as one to four. Old skins, fastened with a princely seal (the so-called "leather money"), were also used as a monetary unit.

The name Rus remained during this period behind the lands in the Middle Dnieper. Residents of different lands usually called themselves after the capital cities of the specific principalities: Novgorodians, Suzdalians, Kuryans, etc. Up to the 13th century, according to archeology, tribal differences in material culture persisted, and the spoken Old Russian language was also not unified, preserving the regional- tribal dialects.

Trade

The most important trade routes of Ancient Russia were:

• the path “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, starting from the Varangian Sea, along Lake Nevo, along the Volkhov and Dnieper rivers, leading to the Black Sea, Balkan Bulgaria and Byzantium (the same way, entering from the Black Sea to the Danube, one could get to Great Moravia) ;
• the Volga trade route (“the path from the Varangians to the Persians”), which went from the city of Ladoga to the Caspian Sea and further to Khorezm and Central Asia, Persia and Transcaucasia;
• a land route that began in Prague and through Kyiv went to the Volga and further to Asia.

ancient Russian state. The state that existed in the East Slavic lands from the end of the 9th century. to the second third (according to another point of view, to the middle) of the XII century. and uniting a significant part of the East Slavic lands (and at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th centuries - almost all of them).

Emergence. The Old Russian state was formed around 882 as a result of the unification of the Novgorod prince Oleg the Prophetic states, conventionally referred to in science as "Novgorod" and "Kyiv".

Capital: Kyiv.

Self names: Russia, Russian land; "Old Russian state" (or "Kievan Rus") it is called in historical science.

Head of State: Grand Duke of Russia; until the middle of the 11th century. he was called the title “kagan” borrowed from the Khazars (in historical science, the head of the Old Russian state is called the Grand Duke of Kyiv).

Coat of arms. For the period from 960s. until 1054, the coat of arms of the Grand Duke of Russia (Kagan) is known. Under Svyatoslav Igorevich (964 - 972) and Svyatopolk the Accursed (1015 - 1016 and 1018 - 1019) it was a bident, under Vladimir Svyatoslavich (978 - 1015) and Yaroslav the Wise (1016 - 1018 and 1019 - 1054) .) - a trident.

Legislation Old Russian state at the end of IX - X centuries. was oral ("Law Russian"). During the XI - early XII centuries. a set of written laws is being formed - Russian Pravda (formed by such legislative monuments as Yaroslav's Pravda, Pokonvirny, Lesson to bridgemen, Yaroslavich's Pravda and Vladimir Monomakh's Charter).

Functions state apparatus at the end of the ninth - the end of the tenth century. performed by the warriors of the Grand Duke (Kagan); from the end of the tenth century such officials as virniki, mytniki, swordsmen are known.

Social system. In Soviet historiography, the Old Russian state was considered early feudal - i.e. one whose character was determined by the formation of feudal relations at that time. According to the scientists of the Leningrad school I.Ya. Froyanov, the feudal system in the Old Russian state was by no means a backbone.

Periods of the history of the state. Four major periods can be distinguished in the history of the Old Russian state.

1) Around 882 - early 990s. The state is federal in nature; the territories of the East Slavic tribal unions included in it enjoy wide autonomy and are generally poorly connected with the center. Therefore, the Old Russian state of this period is often characterized as a "union of unions of tribes." After the death in 972 of Svyatoslav Igorevich, the state generally breaks up into three independent "volosts" (Kyiv, Novgorod and Drevlyansk, reunited by Yaropolk Svyatoslavich only around 977).

2) Early 990s - 1054 As a result of the liquidation by Vladimir Svyatoslavich of most of the tribal principalities and the replacement of tribal princes by deputies (sons) of the Grand Duke of Russia (Kagan), the state acquires the features of a unitary state. However, as a result of strife between Yaroslav the Wise and his brother Mstislav Vladimirovich (Fierce), in 1026 it again splits - into two halves (with a border between them along the Dnieper), - and only after the death in 1036 Mstislav Yaroslav restores the unity of the state .

3) 1054 - 1113 According to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, the state again takes on the features of a federation. It is considered the common property of the princely family of Rurikovich, each of which has the right to reign in a particular area (“volost”), but must obey the eldest in the family - the Grand Duke of Russia. However, as a result of the beginning in the XI century. rapid growth of cities (potential regional centers) and the decline in the importance of the Dnieper trade route (now and then blocked by the Polovtsy), the role of Kyiv as a single center that controls the Dnieper route begins to decline, and the federation tends to turn into a confederation (i.e., to the collapse of a single states).

4) 1113 - 1132 Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125) and his eldest son Mstislav the Great (1125 - 1132) manage to stop the disintegration of the Old Russian state and again give it the features of a federation (rather than a confederation).

Since the objective reasons for the growth of centrifugal tendencies (and, in addition to those listed above, were the weak controllability of a huge state with the then means of communication and communication), neither Vladimir Monomakh nor Mstislav the Great could eliminate, after the death of the latter in 1132, these tendencies triumphed again . City "volosts" one after another began to come out of subordination to the Russian Grand Duke. The last of them did so in the 1150s. (why the time of the final collapse of the Old Russian state is sometimes attributed to the middle of the 12th century), but usually the turn of the first and second thirds of the 12th century is considered the end of the existence of the Old Russian state.

Literature

1. Karpov A.Yu. Vladimir Saint. M., 1997.
2. Karpov A.Yu. Duchess Olga. M., 2012.
3. Karpov A.Yu. Yaroslav the Wise. M., 2001.
4. Kotlyar N.F. Old Russian statehood. SPb., 1998.
5. Petrukhin V.Ya. Russia in the IX - X centuries. From the calling of the Varangians to the choice of faith. M., 2013.
6. Sverdlov M.B. Genesis and structure of feudal society in ancient Russia. M., 1983.
7. Froyanov I.Ya., Dvornichenko A.Yu. City-states of Ancient Russia. L., 1988.

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the reasons: the economic development of the East Slavic territories, their involvement in international transit trade (Kievan Rus was formed on the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks" - a trade water-land route that functioned in the 8th-11th centuries and connected the basins of the Baltic and Black Seas), the need to protect against external enemies, property and social stratification of society.

Prerequisites the formation of the state among the Eastern Slavs: the transition from a tribal community to a neighboring one, the formation of intertribal unions, the development of crafts, crafts and trade, the need to unite to repel an external threat.

The tribal reigns of the Slavs had signs of the emerging statehood. Tribal principalities often united into large superunions, which revealed features of early statehood. One of these associations was union of tribes led by Kiem(known since the end of the 5th century). At the end of the VI-VII century. existed, according to Byzantine and Arabic sources, "Power of Volhynia" , which was an ally of Byzantium.

The Novgorod chronicle tells about the elder Gostomysl , who led in the ninth century. Slavic unification around Novgorod. Eastern sources suggest the existence on the eve of the formation of the Old Russian state three major associations Slavic tribes: Kuyaby, Slavia and Artania. Kuyaba (or Kuyava), apparently, was located around Kyiv. Slavia occupied the territory in the area of ​​Lake Ilmen, its center was Novgorod. The location of Artania is determined differently by different researchers (Ryazan, Chernihiv).

In the XVIII century. formed theories of formation of the Old Russian state . According to Norman theory the state of Russia was created by the Norman (Varangian, Russian name for the Scandinavian peoples) princes who came at the invitation of the Eastern Slavs (authors G. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Schletser). Supporters anti-Norman theory believed that the determining factor in the formation of any state is the objective internal conditions, without which it is impossible to create it by any external forces (author M.V. Lomonosov).

Norman theory

The Russian chronicler of the beginning of the 12th century, trying to explain the origin of the Old Russian state, in accordance with the medieval tradition, included in the chronicle the legend of the calling of three Varangians as princes - brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor. Many historians believe that the Varangians were Norman (Scandinavian) warriors who were hired and took an oath of allegiance to the ruler. A number of historians, on the contrary, consider the Varangians a Russian tribe that lived on the southern coast of the Baltic Sea and on the island of Rügen.

According to this legend, on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus, the northern tribes of the Slavs and their neighbors (Ilmen Slovenes, Chud, all) paid tribute to the Varangians, and the southern tribes (Polyans and their neighbors) were dependent on the Khazars. In 859, the Novgorodians "expelled the Varangians across the sea", which led to civil strife. Under these conditions, the Novgorodians who had gathered for a council sent for the Varangian princes: “Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no dress (order. -Aut.) in it. Yes, go to reign and rule over us. Power over Novgorod and the surrounding Slavic lands passed into the hands of the Varangian princes, the eldest of whom Rurik laid, as the chronicler believed, the beginning of a princely dynasty. After the death of Rurik, another Varangian prince, Oleg(there is evidence that he was a relative of Rurik), who ruled in Novgorod, united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882 So it happened, according to the chronicler, the state Russia(called by modern historians also Kievan Rus).

The legendary chronicle story about the calling of the Varangians served as the basis for the emergence of the so-called Norman theory of the emergence of the Old Russian state. It was first formulated German scientists G.F. Miller and G.Z. Bayer, invited to work in Russia in the 18th century. M. V. Lomonosov acted as an ardent opponent of this theory.

The very fact of the presence of the Varangian squads, by which, as a rule, Scandinavians are understood, in the service of the Slavic princes, their participation in the life of Russia is beyond doubt, as well as the constant mutual ties between the Scandinavians and Russia. However, there are no traces of any noticeable influence of the Varangians on the economic and socio-political institutions of the Slavs, as well as on their language and culture. In the Scandinavian sagas, Russia is a country of untold riches, and serving the Russian princes is a sure way to gain fame and power. Archaeologists note that the number of Varangians in Russia was small. No data were found on the colonization of Russia by the Vikings. The version about the foreign origin of this or that dynasty is typical of antiquity and the Middle Ages. Suffice it to recall the stories about the calling of the Anglo-Saxons by the Britons and the creation of the English state, about the founding of Rome by the brothers Romulus and Remus, etc.

Other theories ( Slavic and centrist)

In the modern era, quite proved the scientific failure of the Norman theory explaining the emergence of the Old Russian state as a result of a foreign initiative. However, its political meaning is dangerous even today. The "Normanists" proceed from the premise of the supposedly primordial backwardness of the Russian people, who, in their opinion, are incapable of independent historical creativity. It is possible, they believe, only under foreign leadership and according to foreign models.

Historians have convincing evidence that there is every reason to assert that the Eastern Slavs had stable traditions of statehood long before the calling of the Varangians. State institutions arise as a result of the development of society. The actions of individual major personalities, conquests or other external circumstances determine the concrete manifestations of this process. Consequently, the fact of calling the Varangians, if it really took place, speaks not so much about the emergence of Russian statehood, but about the origin of the princely dynasty. If Rurik was a real historical figure, then his vocation to Russia should be seen as a response to the real need for princely power in the Russian society of that time. In historical literature the question of Rurik's place in our history remains controversial . Some historians share the opinion that the Russian dynasty of Scandinavian origin, like the very name "Rus" ("Russians" the Finns called the inhabitants of Northern Sweden). Their opponents are of the opinion that the legend about the calling of the Varangians is the fruit of tendentious writing, a later insertion caused by political reasons. There is also a point of view that the Varangians were Slavs who originated either from the southern coast of the Baltic (Rügen Island) or from the region of the Neman River. It should be noted that the term "Rus" is repeatedly found in relation to various associations both in the north and in the south of the East Slavic world.

State formation Russia or, as it is called in the capital, Kievan Rus) - the natural completion of a long process of decomposition of the primitive communal system among a dozen and a half Slavic tribal unions who lived on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks." The established state was at the very beginning of its journey: primitive communal traditions retained their place in all spheres of life of East Slavic society for a long time.

Centers of the Old Russian state

Russia took place on the basis two centers: southern folded around Kyiv(founders brothers Kyi, Shchek, Khoriv and sister Lybid) in the middle of the 9th century. The northern center formed around Novgorod.

The first prince of Novgorod was Rurik(862-879) with the brothers Sineus and Truvor. From 879-912 rules Oleg, who united Novgorod and Kyiv in 882 and created a single state of Rus. Oleg carried out campaigns against Byzantium (907, 911), concluded an agreement in 911 with the Byzantine emperor Leo VI on the right to free trade.

In 912, power inherits Igor(son of Rurik). He repelled the invasion of the Pechenegs, made campaigns against Byzantium: in 941 he was defeated and in 944 he concluded the first written agreement with the Byzantine emperor Roman I Lakapin. In 945, as a result of an uprising of the Drevlyane tribe, Igor was killed while trying to re-collect polyudye - an annual detour by the prince and a squad of subject lands to collect tribute.

The ancient Russian state was early feudal monarchy where power was hereditary. was at the head of the state Grand Duke He had supreme legislative and executive power. He performed duties supreme commander , was the head of diplomatic activity. Helped the prince in management Advice(the top of the squad is princely men). Druzhina consisted of the "senior" (performed the instructions of the prince) and the "younger": youths and children (personal servants of the prince). The specific princes were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke (personal dependence of small feudal lords on large ones).

After the unification of the Slavic tribes into the Old Russian state, all people in it begin to form a single society. However, as in all other countries, this society was not homogeneous and was divided into different categories and layers depending on what people were doing.

Summary of the lesson "Formation of the Old Russian State«.

The origin of the history of the reign of the Old Russian princes can be seen from the time of the activities of the Varangian prince Rurik (862–879).

(879–912) Oleg is the very first of the princes who began to rule the Old Russian state after the Varangians appeared on the Dnieper. He was connected with Rurik by family roots, he was also the guardian of his underage son. During the reign of Oleg, Smolensk was captured. Prince Oleg managed to unite the Slavic tribes. He subjugated Kyiv under his rule in 882, as a result of which he killed the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled in Kyiv at that time. Then Oleg made Kyiv the capital, the main city over all Russian cities. Thus, Kievan Rus was born. Among his achievements are military operations with Byzantium, two successful campaigns against Constantinople. As a result of these campaigns, Russia won two peace treaties in 907 and 911. With the capture of the Drevlyans (883), the concept of tribute came to Russia, which was collected from them. Gradually, Oleg defeated both the northerners and the glades and the Radimichi, who before him paid tribute to the Russian enemies - the Khazars (885).

Igor Rurikovich (912-945) - the son of Rurik, a follower of Oleg, who continued the work of his predecessor - expanded the Old Russian state by joining the rest of the tribal unions. He also went with the army to Byzantium, and in 944 an agreement was signed with her, which was considered beneficial to both. Prince Igor was the first to recognize the raids of the Pechenegs (Turkic nomads). The innovation that he organized for the first time - the collection of tribute from the Drevlyans (polyudye), and became his death, when once again in 945 he demanded tribute on the lands subject to him.

Olga (945-969) - the first female princess, the wife of the late Igor. Unlike her husband, she completely took power into her own hands and subjugated not only Kyiv, but the whole of Kievan Rus. And the amount of tribute, which under Igor had a changeable character, she managed to legalize, even establishing one place where tribute was brought. Olga became the first Christian to be baptized in Constantinople in 957 under a false name (Elena).

Svyatoslav Igorevich is a follower of his mother Olga, who began his reign in 962. In 964, he nevertheless took under the power of the Old Russian state the last of the East Slavic tribes - the Vyatichi, from whom he collected tribute. The year 965 is the most significant for Svyatoslav, because the Khazar capital and several other cities were taken by storm, and a fortress was built on one of the cities. The return from the Danube in 972 ended in complete failure for Svyatoslav - he was killed by the Pechenegs. During the principality, Svyatoslav showed his abilities as a talented commander.

Vladimir (980-1015) - one of the sons of Svyatoslav, who won the internecine war with his brother. In the books of the Old Russian state, he was equated with the apostles. This is due to the Orthodox traditions with the spread of Christianity. In the memory of the Old Russian people, he remained under the name Vladimir the Red Sun. Among all the princes of the Old Russian state, Vladimir managed not only to expand the borders of Russia, but also to strengthen it as a powerful state. Among his numerical victories are the victory over the Radimichi, good luck from campaigns on Polish lands, on Pecheneg territories, and the construction of fortresses. In a number of reforms that were carried out, there was a pagan reform (980) - the god Perun was placed at the head of the pagan pantheon. But this was not enough, because the new ideology did not succumb to the outdated principles of the ancient religion. Vladimir thought politically and understood that the new religion, that is, Christianity, would significantly strengthen the international relations of Russia with Byzantium and its culture. And in 988 the people were converted to Christianity, and the remnants of paganism were destroyed. As a result, the power of the prince became more powerful, the unity of both the people and the state as a whole was strengthened.