Portal about sewerage and downpipes / Pipes / Reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century were carried out. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

Reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century were carried out. The era of great reforms in Russia (60s of the XIX century)

31.10.2022

Alexander II before the coronation and in the first years of his reign.

Alexander II - Emperor of All Russia, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818.

Naturally, great importance was given to the upbringing and education of the future monarch. His educators were General Merder (company commander at the school of guards ensigns, who had remarkable pedagogical abilities, “a meek disposition and a rare mind”), M. M. Speransky, E. F. Kankrin. No less significant was the influence of another mentor - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. I would like to dwell in more detail on the system of education of Zhukovsky, which provided not only general knowledge of the then accepted extensive set of subjects and four foreign languages, but also purely specialized knowledge: about the state, its laws, finances, foreign policy and formed a system of worldview. The basic principles of the upbringing of the Tsarevich looked like this:

Where I am? Nature, its laws. In this part of the program, natural science subjects are connected with the idea of "God in nature".

Who am I? The doctrine of man, united by Christian doctrine.

What was I? History, sacred history.

What should I be? Private and public morality.

What am I meant for? Revelation religion, metaphysics, the concept of God and the immortality of the soul.

And at the end (and not at the beginning) law, social history, state economy, statistics arising from everything.

The acquired knowledge was reinforced by numerous travels. He was the first of the royal family to visit (in 1837) Siberia, and the result of this visit was to mitigate the fate of political exiles. Later, while in the Caucasus, the Tsarevich distinguished himself during the attack of the highlanders, for which he was awarded the Order of St. George 4th degree. In 1837, at the request of Nicholas I, he undertook a trip to Europe for educational purposes. He traveled to Switzerland, Austria, Italy and stayed for a long time in Berlin, Weimar, Munich, Vienna, Turin, Florence, Rome and Naples.

A major role in the life of Alexander II was played by a visit to Darmstadt, where he met Princess Maximilian-Wilhelmina-Augusta-Sophia-Maria (born July 27, 1824), the adopted daughter of Louis II, Duke of Hesse, who soon became the wife of the Tsarevich, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna.

From the age of 16, Alexander successfully took part in management affairs, first sporadically, and then systematically. At the age of 26 he became a "full general" and had a fairly professional military training. IN last years reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels he repeatedly replaced his father.

Alexander II ascended the throne on February 19, 1855 at the age of 36. He was to go down in history under the name of the Liberator. Already on the day of the coronation, August 26, the new manifesto of the sovereign was marked by a number of favors. Recruitment was suspended for three years, all state arrears, miscalculations, etc., were forgiven; various criminals were released, or at least the punishment was mitigated, including an amnesty for political prisoners - the surviving Decembrists, Petrashevites, participants in the Polish uprising of 1831; Recruitment of minor Jews was canceled, and recruitment between the latter was ordered to be carried out on a general basis; free travel abroad was allowed, etc. But all these measures were only the threshold of those global reforms that marked the reign of Alexander II.

During this period, the Crimean War was in full swing and took an unfavorable turn, where Russia had to deal with the combined forces of almost all the major European powers. Despite his peacefulness, which was also known in Europe, Alexander expressed his firm determination to continue the struggle and achieve peace, which was soon achieved. Representatives of seven states (Russia, France, Austria, England, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey) gathered in Paris, and on March 18, 1856, a peace treaty was concluded. The peace of Paris, although not beneficial for Russia, was nevertheless honorable for her in view of such numerous and powerful opponents. However, its disadvantageous side - the limitation of Russian naval forces on the Black Sea - was eliminated during the life of Alexander II.

Reforms of the 60-70s under Alexander II.

The need for reform.

At the end of the Crimean War, many internal shortcomings of the Russian state were revealed. Changes were needed, and the country was looking forward to them. Then the emperor uttered the words that became for a long time the slogan of Russia: "Let her internal improvement be affirmed and improved; let truth and mercy reign in her courts; let the desire for enlightenment and all useful activity develop everywhere and with renewed vigor ..."

In the first place, of course, was the idea of liberating the serfs. In his speech to representatives of the Moscow nobility, Alexander II said: "It is better to cancel it from above than to wait until it is itself canceled from below." There was no other way out, since every year the peasants expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing system more and more. The corvée form of exploitation of the peasant expanded, which caused crisis situations. First of all, the productivity of the labor of the serfs began to decline, as the landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. The most far-sighted landowners realized that forced labor was much inferior in productivity to hired labor (For example, a large landowner A.I. Koshelev wrote about this in his article “Hunting more than captivity” in 1847). But hiring workers required considerable expenses from the landowner at a time when serf labor was free. Many landowners tried to introduce new farming systems, apply the latest technology, purchase improved varieties of thoroughbred cattle, and so on. Unfortunately, such measures led them to ruin and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants. The debts of landowners' estates to credit institutions grew. Further development of the economy on the serf system was impossible. In addition, it, having existed in Russia much longer than in European countries ah has taken a very harsh form.

However, there is another point of view regarding this reform, according to which, by the middle of the 19th century, serfdom was still far from exhausting its capabilities and opposition to the government was very weak. Neither economic nor social catastrophe threatened Russia, but by retaining serfdom, it could drop out of the ranks of the great powers.

The peasant reform entailed the transformation of all aspects of state and public life. A number of measures were envisaged to restructure local government, the judiciary, education and, later, the army. These were really major changes, comparable only to the reforms of Peter I.

Abolition of serfdom.

On January 3, 1857, the first significant step was taken, which served as the beginning of the reform: the creation of a Secret Committee under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the emperor himself. It included: Prince Orlov, Count Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count V.F. Adlerberg, Prince V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, Prince P.P. Gagarin, Baron M. A. Korf and Ya. I. Rostovtsev. The purpose of the committee was designated as "discussion of measures to organize the life of the landlord peasants." Thus, the government tried to get initiative from the nobility in resolving this issue. The word "liberation" has not yet been spoken. But the committee acted very sluggishly. More precise actions began to be carried out later.

February 1858. The secret committee was renamed the “Main Committee on the Landlord Peasants Coming Out of Serfdom”, and a year later (March 4, 1859), Editorial Commissions were established under the committee, which reviewed the materials prepared by the provincial committees and drafted a law on the emancipation of the peasants. . There were two opinions here: the majority of the landlords proposed to free the peasants without land at all or with small allotments, while the liberal minority proposed to release them with land for redemption. At first, Alexander II shared the majority's point of view, but then he came to the conclusion that it was necessary to allocate land to the peasants. Historians usually associate such a decision with the strengthening of the peasant movement: the Tsar was afraid of a repetition of the “Pugachevism”. But no less important role was played by the presence in the government of an influential grouping, called the "liberal bureaucracy".

The draft "Regulations on the Peasants" was practically prepared at the end of August 1859, but for some time it was subject to minor corrections and clarifications. In October 1860, the Editorial Commissions, having completed their work, handed over the draft to the Main Committee, where it was discussed again and underwent further changes, but this time in favor of the landowners. On January 28, 1861, the project was submitted for consideration by the last instance - the State Council, which adopted them with some changes, in the sense of reducing the size of the peasant allotment.

Finally, on February 19, 1861, the "Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom", which included 17 legislative acts, were signed by Alexander II. On the same day, the manifesto “On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants” followed, in which it was proclaimed the release of 22.6 million peasants from serfdom.

The "Regulations" extended to 45 provinces of European Russia, in which there were 112,000 landowners' estates. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to allocate his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, arable and haymaking in a certain amount. Secondly, it was declared obligatory for the peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use, for the duties established in favor of the landowner, the secular land allotted to them during the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After nine years, individual members of the community were given the right both to leave it and to refuse to use field lands and lands if they bought their estate; the society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, with regard to the size of the peasant allotment and the payments associated with it, according to general rules, it is customary to base on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which purpose to conclude a charter charter through mediators established by the situation, their congresses and provincial presences for peasant affairs, and in western provinces - and special verification commissions.

The “Regulation”, however, was not limited to the rules for allocating land to the peasants for permanent use, but made it easier for them to buy the allotted plots into their property with the help of a state redemption operation, and the government gave the peasants a certain amount on credit for the land they acquired with payment by installments for 49 years and, giving this amount to the landowner in state interest-bearing papers, he took all further settlements with the peasants upon himself. Upon approval by the government of the redemption transaction, all obligatory relations between the peasants and the landowner were terminated, and the latter entered the category of peasant proprietors.

"Regulations" were gradually extended to the peasants of the palace, appanage, ascribed and state.

But as a result of this, the peasantry remained bound by the community, and the land allocated to it turned out to be clearly insufficient to meet the needs of an ever-growing population. The peasant remained completely dependent on the rural community (the former “world”), which, in turn, was completely controlled by the authorities; personal allotments were transferred to the ownership of peasant societies, which periodically redistributed them “equalizing”.

In the spring and summer of 1861, the peasants, who did not receive, as expected, "full freedom", organized many uprisings. Outrage was caused by such facts as, for example: for two years the peasants remained subordinate to the landowner, were obliged to pay dues and perform corvée, were deprived of a significant part of the land, and those allotments that were given to them as property had to be redeemed from the landowner. During 1861 there were 1860 peasant uprisings. Peasant performances in the village of Bezdna, Kazan province, are considered one of the largest. Subsequently, disappointment with the inconsistency of the reform was growing not only among former serfs: articles by A. Herzen and N. Ogarev in Kolokol, N. Chernyshevsky in Sovremennik.

Land reform.

After the peasant "Regulations" in a number of administrative reforms, one of the most important places is occupied, without any doubt, by the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which was published on January 1, 1864.

According to the regulation, non-estate elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were introduced. They were elected by all estates for a three-year term and consisted of administrative bodies (county and provincial zemstvo assemblies) and executive bodies (county and provincial zemstvo councils). Elections to zemstvo administrative bodies - meetings of vowels (deputies) - were held on the basis of a property qualification, by curia. The first curia (landowners) consisted of owners of land from 200 to 800 acres or real estate worth from 15,000 rubles. The second curia (city) united the owners of urban industrial and commercial establishments with an annual turnover of at least 6,000 rubles and owners of real estate for at least 2,000 rubles. The elections for the third curia (rural peasant societies) were multistage. Zemstvo assemblies elected executive bodies - zemstvo councils - consisting of a chairman and several members.

Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions, their activities were limited mainly to solving local issues. They were responsible for public education, for public health, for the timely delivery of food, for the quality of roads, for insurance, for veterinary care, and much more.

All this required a lot of money, so the zemstvos were allowed to introduce new taxes, impose duties on the population, and form zemstvo capitals. With its full development, zemstvo activity was supposed to cover all aspects of local life. New forms of local self-government not only made it all-class, but also expanded the range of its powers. Self-government was so widespread that many were understood as a transition to a representative form of government, so the government soon became noticeable desire to keep the activities of zemstvos at the local level, and not allow zemstvo corporations to communicate with each other.

In the late 1970s, zemstvos were introduced into 35 out of 59 Russian provinces.

City reform (in continuation of the Zemstvo).

On June 16, 1870, the "City Regulations" were published, according to which elective self-government was introduced in 509 out of 1130 cities - city dumas elected for four years. The city duma (administrative body) elected its permanent executive body - the city government, which consisted of the mayor (also elected for four years) and several members. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city council. City councils were under the control of government officials.

The right to elect and be elected to the city duma had the right only to residents with a property qualification (mainly owners of houses, commercial and industrial establishments, banks). The first electoral assembly included large taxpayers who contributed a third of city taxes, the second - smaller ones, paying another third of taxes, the third - all the rest. In the largest cities, the number of vowels (elected) averaged 5.6% of the population. Thus, the bulk of the urban population was excluded from participation in urban self-government.

The competence of city self-government was limited to solving purely economic issues (improvement of cities, construction of hospitals, schools, care for the development of trade, fire prevention measures, city taxation).

Judicial reform.

Among the reforms, one of the leading places undoubtedly belongs to the judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct influence on the entire system of state and public life. She introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - the complete separation of the judiciary from the administrative and accusatory, the publicity and openness of the court, the independence of judges, the advocacy and the adversarial procedure for legal proceedings.

The country was divided into 108 judicial districts.

The essence of judicial reform is as follows:

The court is made oral and public;

The power of the judiciary is separated from the prosecution and belongs to the courts without any participation of the administrative power;

The main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process;

The case on the merits can be dealt with no more than in two instances. Two types of courts were introduced: world and general. The magistrate's courts, represented by a magistrate, tried criminal and civil cases, the damage in which did not exceed 500 rubles. Justices of the peace were elected by district zemstvo assemblies, approved by the Senate, and could be dismissed only at their own request or by court order. The general court consisted of three instances: the district court, the judicial chamber, the Senate. The district courts heard serious civil suits and criminal (juror) cases. The Trial Chambers heard appeals and were the court of first instance for political and state affairs. The Senate was the highest judicial instance and could cancel the decisions of the courts submitted for cassation.

In cases of crimes involving punishments, connected with the deprivation of all or some of the rights and advantages of the state, the determination of guilt is left to jurors, elected from local residents of all classes;

Eliminates clerical secrecy;

Both for intercession in cases and for the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys at the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation.

Judicial statutes extended to 44 provinces and were introduced into them for more than thirty years.

In 1863, a law was passed that abolished corporal punishment with gauntlets, whips, whips and brands on the verdicts of civil and military courts. Women were completely exempted from corporal punishment. But the rods were kept for the peasants (according to the verdicts of the volost courts), for the exiled, hard labor and penal soldiers.

military reform.

The military administration has also undergone transformations.

Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Degrading corporal punishment was abolished.

Particular attention was paid to raising the level of general education of army officers through the reform of military educational institutions. Military gymnasiums and cadet schools with a two-year term of study were created. They included persons of all classes.

In January 1874, all-class military service was proclaimed. The Supreme Manifesto on this occasion said: "Protection of the throne and the Fatherland is the sacred duty of every Russian subject ...". Under the new law, all young people who have reached the age of 21 are called up, but the government determines the required number of recruits every year, and draws only this number from the recruits (usually no more than 20-25% of recruits were called up for service). The call was not subject to the only son of the parents, the only breadwinner in the family, and also if the older brother of the recruit is serving or has served his service. Those enlisted in the service are listed in it: in the ground forces 15 years: 6 years in the ranks and 9 years in the reserve, in the navy - 7 years of active service and 3 years in the reserve. For those who have received primary education, the term of active service is reduced to 4 years, those who have graduated from a city school - up to 3 years, a gymnasium - up to one and a half years, and those who have higher education - up to six months.

Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war.

The system of military command and control has undergone fundamental changes in order to strengthen control over the locations of troops. The result of this revision was approved on August 6, 1864 "Regulations on the military district administrations." Based on this "Regulations", nine military districts were initially organized, and then (August 6, 1865) four more. In each district, a chief commander was appointed, appointed at the direct highest discretion, bearing the title of commander of the troops of the military district. This position may also be assigned to the local governor-general. In some districts, an assistant to the commander of the troops is also appointed.

By the end of the 19th century, the number of the Russian army was (per 130 million people): officers, doctors and officials - 47 thousand, lower ranks - 1 million 100 thousand. Then these figures declined and reached 742,000 people, while the military potential was maintained.

In the 60s, at the insistence of the Ministry of War, railways were built to the western and southern borders of Russia, and in 1870 railway troops appeared. During the 70s, the technical re-equipment of the army was basically completed.

Caring for the defenders of the Motherland was manifested in everything, even in small things. For example, for more than a hundred years (until the 80s of the XIX century), boots were sewn without distinction between the right and left legs. It was believed that during a combat alarm, a soldier had no time to think about which boot to wear, on which leg.

Special treatment was given to the prisoners. Soldiers who were taken prisoner and were not in the service of the enemy, upon returning home, received a salary from the state for the entire time they were in captivity. The prisoner was considered a victim. And those who distinguished themselves in battles were waiting for military awards. Orders of Russia were especially highly valued. They gave such privileges that they even changed the position of a person in society.

financial reforms.

One of the main means of raising the economic power of the country was considered to be the construction of a network of railways linking the central regions of the European part of Russia. In connection with it, foreign leave increased 10 times, and the import of goods almost also increased. Number of trade and industrial enterprises increased markedly, as well as the number of factories and plants. Credit institutions appeared - banks, headed by the State Bank (1860).

It was at this time that the first coal-mining and metallurgical enterprises were created in Ukraine and oil-producing enterprises in Baku.

Reforms in the field of education.

Public education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Education A. V. Golovkin, a special commission at the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University, participated. The charter granted the universities a fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced, the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a rapid pace.

According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.

On November 19, 1864, a new regulation on gymnasiums appeared, which proclaimed equality in admission to all estates. But because of the high pay, it was available only to children of wealthy parents.

Attention was also paid to women's education. Already in the 60s, instead of the former closed women's institutions, open ones began to be arranged, with the admission of girls of all classes, and these new institutions were under the authority of the institutions of Empress Maria. Similar gymnasiums began to be approved by the Ministry of Public Education. In 1870, on May 24, a new Regulation on Women's Gymnasiums and Progymnasiums of the Ministry of Public Education was approved. The need for higher female education led to the establishment of pedagogical courses and higher female courses in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Kazan and Odessa.

Reforms in the field of printing.

The reform of the press also had a profound and beneficial effect on the development of public consciousness.

In 1857, the government put the question of revising the censorship charter on the agenda. After the permission in 1858 to discuss in the press the problems of public life and the activities of the government, the number of periodicals (1860 - 230) and book titles (1860 -2058) increased sharply.

Already in 1862, the main department of censorship was closed and part of its duties was assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and the other - directly to the Minister of Education.

On April 6, 1865, the “Temporary Rules on the Press” were approved, which exempted from preliminary censorship original works of at least ten, and translated - at least twenty sheets, and some periodicals at the discretion of the Minister of the Interior. For periodicals, a large cash deposit was additionally required. Official and scientific publications were exempted from censorship.

The "Temporary Rules on the Press" operated practically unchanged for 40 years.

The assassination of the emperor.

Emperor Alexander II, who caused delight and surprise of enlightened people of the whole world, also met ill-wishers. Pursuing incomprehensible goals, the organizers created a number of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down his life, died a martyr's death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive projectile.

On this fateful day, Emperor Alexander II decided to make a divorce (the procedure for sending out daily guards for a shift). The path lay along a narrow street, made up of the garden of the Grand Duchess, fenced with a stone fence the height of a man and a lattice of the Catherine Canal. The terrain is very impassable, and if it is true that the sovereign chose it in view of the anonymous threats he received, then it is difficult to imagine why an ambush awaited him precisely on this path, except because they noticed a large, against the usual, number of police on it. Be that as it may, but when the sovereign's carriage reached the Theater Bridge, there was an explosion that broke the back of the carriage, which immediately stopped. The sovereign emerged from it unharmed, but one of the escorts, galloping behind, and a sapper officer, walking along the sidewalk along the stone wall of the Mikhailovsky Garden, were mortally wounded by a thrown bomb. The sovereign's coachman, sensing trouble, turned to him from the goat: "Let's go, sovereign!" The chief of police, galloping behind, jumped out of the sleigh with the same request to go faster. But the emperor did not listen and took a few steps back: "I want to see my wounded." At this time, the crowd managed to stop a healthy kid who threw a bomb. The sovereign turned to him: “So it was you who wanted to kill me?” But he did not succeed in finishing, as the second bomb exploded in front of him, and he lowered himself with the words: “Help.” They rushed to him, lifted him up, put the chief of police in the sledge (who himself received 45 wounds from small fragments of the bomb, but not a single fatal one) and drove him away. A little over an hour later, at 3:35 pm, Tsar Alexander II died in the Winter Palace.

The eminent Russian philosopher V. V. Rozanov called the assassination of the emperor "a mixture of Madness and Meanness."

The political testament of Alexander II was destroyed. Alexander III, in the consciousness of his past delusions and in an effort to return to the ideal of the kings of Moscow, turned to the people with a manifesto, which affirmed the inviolability of autocratic power and the exclusive responsibility of the autocrat before God.

The Russian Empire thus returned to the old traditional paths on which it had once found glory and prosperity.

Significance of the reign of Alexander II in the history of Russia.

Alexander II left a deep mark on history, he managed to do what other autocrats were afraid to take on - the liberation of the peasants from serfdom. We enjoy the fruits of his reforms to this day.

The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale only to the reforms of Peter I. The reformer tsar made truly grandiose transformations without social cataclysms and fratricidal war.

With the abolition of serfdom, commercial and industrial activity "resurrected", a stream of workers poured into the cities, and new areas for entrepreneurship opened up. Old ties were restored between cities and counties and new ones were created.

The fall of serfdom, the equalization of all before the court, the creation of new liberal forms of social life led to the freedom of the individual. And the feeling of this freedom awakened the desire to develop it. Dreams were created about the establishment of new forms of family and social life.

During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relations with the European powers, and resolved numerous conflicts with neighboring countries.

The tragic death of the emperor greatly changed the further course of history, and it was this event that 35 years later led Russia to death, and Nicholas II to a martyr's wreath.

RUSSIAN HISTORY

ABSTRACT

Great reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century. Alexander II .

Content:

I.I.Alexander II before the coronation and in the first years of his reign.

II.II."Great Reforms" of 1863-1874.

A. The need for reform.

B. The abolition of serfdom.

B. Zemstvo reform.

D. Urban reform.

D. Judicial reform.

E. Military reform.

J. Financial reforms.

Z. Reforms in the field of education.

I. Reforms in the field of printing.

III.III.The assassination of the emperor.

IV.IV.The significance of the reforms of Alexander II in the history of the state.

I. I. Alexander II before the coronation and in the first years of his reign.

A Alexander II - Emperor of All Russia, the eldest son of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, was born in Moscow on April 17, 1818.

Naturally, great importance was given to the upbringing and education of the future monarch. His educators were General Merder (company commander at the school of guards ensigns, who had remarkable pedagogical abilities, “a meek disposition and a rare mind”), M. M. Speransky, E. F. Kankrin. No less significant was the influence of another mentor - the famous poet Vasily Andreevich Zhukovsky, the head of his class studies. I would like to take a closer look at the Zhukovsky education system, which provided not only general knowledge of the then accepted extensive set of subjects and four foreign languages, but also purely specialized knowledge: about the state, its laws, finances, foreign policy and formed a system of worldview. The basic principles of the upbringing of the Tsarevich looked like this:

WHO AM I? The doctrine of man, united by Christian doctrine.

WHAT WAS I? History, sacred history.

WHAT SHOULD I BE? Private and public morality.

WHAT AM I DESIGNATED FOR? Revelation religion, metaphysics, the concept of God and the immortality of the soul.

And at the end (and not at the beginning) law, social history, state economy, statistics arising from everything.

From the age of 16, Alexander successfully took part in management affairs, first sporadically, and then systematically. At the age of 26 he became a "full general" and had a fairly professional military training. In the last years of the reign of Emperor Nicholas and during his travels, he repeatedly replaced his father.

II. "Great reforms" of the 60-70s.

A. The need for reform.

P At the end of the Crimean War, many internal shortcomings of the Russian state were revealed. Changes were needed, and the country was looking forward to them. Then the emperor uttered the words that became for a long time the slogan of Russia: "Let her internal improvement be affirmed and improved; let truth and mercy reign in her courts; let the desire for enlightenment and all useful activity develop everywhere and with renewed vigor ..."

In the first place, of course, was the idea of liberating the serfs. In his speech to representatives of the Moscow nobility, Alexander II said: "It is better to cancel it from above than to wait until it is itself canceled from below." There was no other way out, since every year the peasants expressed their dissatisfaction with the existing system more and more. The corvée form of exploitation of the peasant expanded, which caused crisis situations. First of all, the productivity of the labor of the serfs began to decline, as the landowners wanted to produce more products and thereby undermined the strength of the peasant economy. The most far-sighted landlords realized that forced labor was much inferior in productivity to hired labor (For example, a large landowner A.I. Koshelev wrote about this in his article “Hunting more than captivity” in 1847). But hiring workers required considerable expenses from the landowner at a time when serf labor was free. Many landowners tried to introduce new farming systems, apply the latest technology, purchase improved varieties of thoroughbred cattle, and so on. Unfortunately, such measures led them to ruin and, accordingly, to increased exploitation of the peasants. The debts of landowners' estates to credit institutions grew. Further development of the economy on the serf system was impossible. In addition, having existed in Russia much longer than in European countries, it has taken very harsh forms.

B. The abolition of serfdom.

3 January 1857, the first significant step was taken, which served as the beginning of the reform: the creation of the Secret Committee under the direct supervision and chairmanship of the emperor himself. It included: Prince Orlov, Count Lanskoy, Count Bludov, Minister of Finance Brock, Count V.F. Adlerberg, Prince V.A. Dolgorukov, Minister of State Property M.N. Muravyov, Prince P.P. Gagarin, Baron M.A. Korf and Ya.I. Rostovtsev. The purpose of the committee was designated as "discussion of measures to organize the life of the landlord peasants." Thus, the government tried to get initiative from the nobility in resolving this issue. The word "liberation" has not yet been spoken. But the committee acted very sluggishly. More precise actions began to be carried out later.

The "Regulations" extended to 45 provinces of European Russia, in which there were 112,000 landowners' estates. First of all, it was declared obligatory for the landowner to allocate his former peasants, in addition to the estate land, arable and haymaking in a certain amount. Secondly, it was declared obligatory for the peasants to accept the allotment and keep in their use, for the duties established in favor of the landowner, the secular land allotted to them during the first nine years (until February 19, 1870). After nine years, individual members of the community were given the right both to leave it and to refuse to use field lands and lands if they bought their estate; the society itself also receives the right not to accept for its use such plots that individual peasants refuse. Thirdly, with regard to the size of the peasant allotment and the payments connected with it, according to general rules it is customary to rely on voluntary agreements between landowners and peasants, for which purpose a statutory charter is concluded through the mediation of mediators established by the situation, their congresses and provincial presences for peasant affairs, and in the western provinces - and special verification commissions.

"Regulations" were gradually extended to the peasants of the palace, appanage, ascribed and state.

B. Zemstvo reform.

P After the peasant "Regulations" in a number of administrative reforms, one of the most important places is occupied, without any doubt, by the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which was published on January 1, 1864.

In the late 1970s, zemstvos were introduced into 35 out of 59 Russian provinces.

G. Urban reform (in continuation of the Zemstvo).

1 On June 6, 1870, the "City Regulations" were published, according to which in 509 out of 1130 cities elective self-government was introduced - city dumas elected for four years. The city duma (administrative body) elected its permanent executive body - the city government, which consisted of the mayor (also elected for four years) and several members. The mayor was simultaneously the chairman of both the city duma and the city council. City councils were under the control of government officials.

D. Judicial reform.

IN among the reforms, one of the leading places, undoubtedly, belongs to the judicial reform. This deeply thought-out reform had a strong and direct influence on the entire system of state and public life. She introduced into it completely new, long-awaited principles - the complete separation of the judiciary from the administrative and accusatory, the publicity and openness of the court, the independence of judges, the advocacy and the adversarial procedure for legal proceedings.

The country was divided into 108 judicial districts.

The essence of judicial reform is as follows:

The court is made oral and public;

The power of the judiciary is separated from the prosecution and belongs to the courts without any participation of the administrative power;

The main form of legal proceedings is the adversarial process;

Eliminates clerical secrecy;

Both for intercession in cases and for the defense of defendants, there are sworn attorneys at the courts, who are under the supervision of special councils composed of the same corporation.

Judicial statutes extended to 44 provinces and were introduced into them for more than thirty years.

E. Military reform.

IN military administration has also undergone transformations.

Already at the beginning of the reign, military settlements were destroyed. Degrading corporal punishment was abolished.

Thus, the result of the reform was the creation of a small peacetime army with a significant trained reserve in case of war.

J. Financial reforms.

One of the main means of raising the economic power of the country was considered to be the construction of a network of railways linking the central regions of the European part of Russia. In connection with it, foreign leave increased 10 times, and the import of goods almost also increased. The number of commercial and industrial enterprises increased markedly, as well as the number of factories and plants. Credit institutions appeared - banks, headed by the State Bank (1860).

It was at this time that the first coal-mining and metallurgical enterprises were created in Ukraine and oil-producing enterprises in Baku.

Z. Reforms in the field of education.

H public education also attracted the attention of the king. Of particular importance in this regard was the publication of a new and general charter of Russian universities on July 18, 1863, in the development of which, on the initiative of the Minister of Education A.V. Golovkin, participated in a special commission at the main board of schools, composed mainly of professors from St. Petersburg University. The charter granted the universities a fairly broad autonomy: the election of the rector, deans, professors was introduced, the University Council received the right to independently resolve all scientific, educational, administrative and financial issues. And in connection with the development of universities, science began to develop at a rapid pace.

According to the Regulations on Primary Public Schools approved on June 14, 1864, the state, church and society (zemstvos and cities) were to jointly educate the people.

I. Reforms in the field of printing.

Already in 1862, the main department of censorship was closed and part of its duties was assigned to the Ministry of the Interior, and the other - directly to the Minister of Education.

The "Temporary Rules on the Press" operated practically unchanged for 40 years.

III. III. The assassination of the emperor.

AND Emperor Alexander II, who caused delight and surprise of enlightened people of the whole world, also met ill-wishers. Pursuing incomprehensible goals, the organizers created a number of attempts on the life of the sovereign, who was the pride and glory of Russia. On March 1, 1881, the sovereign, for whom a large population was ready to lay down his life, died a martyr's death from a villainous hand that threw an explosive projectile.

The eminent Russian philosopher V.V. Rozanov called the assassination of the emperor “a mixture of Madness and Meanness”.

The Russian Empire thus returned to the old traditional paths on which it had once found glory and prosperity.

IV. Significance of the reign of Alexander II in the history of Russia.

A Alexander II left a deep mark on history, he managed to do what other autocrats were afraid to take on - the liberation of the peasants from serfdom. We enjoy the fruits of his reforms to this day.

The internal reforms of Alexander II are comparable in scale only to the reforms of Peter I. The reformer tsar made truly grandiose transformations without social cataclysms and fratricidal war.

During his reign, Russia firmly strengthened its relations with the European powers, and resolved numerous conflicts with neighboring countries.

The tragic death of the emperor greatly changed the further course of history, and it was this event that 35 years later led Russia to death, and Nicholas II to a martyr's wreath.

LIST OF USED LITERATURE.

1. 1. S.F. Platonov "Lectures on Russian history", Moscow, publishing house "Higher School", 1993.

2. 2. V.V. Kargalov, Yu.S. Savelyev, V.A. Fedorov “History of Russia from ancient times to 1917”, Moscow, publishing house “Russian Word”, 1998.

3. 3. "History of Russia from antiquity to the present day", edited by M.N. Zuev, Moscow, "Higher School", 1998.

4. 4. "History of the Fatherland for applicants to universities" edited by A.S. Orlov, A.Yu. Polunov and Yu.A. Shchetinov, Moscow, publishing house "Prostor", 1994.

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TEST

On the discipline "history"

Topic: Great reforms of the 60-70s of the XIX century in Russia

Introduction

2.1 Zemstvo reform

2.2 Urban reform

2.3 Judicial reform

2.4 Military reform

2.5 Financial reform

3. Socio-political consequences of the reforms and their assessment in the historical literature

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction.

throughout the second half of the nineteenth century. marked by powerful modernization processes that strengthened capitalism and established an industrial society in the developed countries of Europe and the USA. Technical scientific discoveries and inventions of the last third of the 19th century. led to the creation of new industries.

In the political sphere, important factors of modernization were: the development of European statehood and the formation of a national ideology and national movements; the formation of the German Empire, the Italian kingdom; end of the civil war 1861-1865 in the United States the triumph of the unity of the country. In the second half of the XIX century. the process of creating political parties was completed, and many public organizations took shape. By the end of the XIX century. in a number of developed countries (Great Britain, the USA, partly France, Belgium, Sweden), elements of civil society have established themselves and political modernization has begun to bear fruit.

Against this background, in the Russian Empire in the second half of the XIX century. the process of political modernization was just beginning. The liberal reforms of the 1960s and 1970s played an important role in this process. Large-scale in nature and consequences, the reforms marked significant changes in all aspects of the life of Russian society.

The failure in the Crimean War undermined the international prestige of Russia, accelerated the abolition of serfdom and the implementation of military reforms in the 60-70s. 19th century The Russian autocracy had to take the path of carrying out urgent social, economic and political reforms in order to prevent a revolutionary explosion in the country and to strengthen the social and economic base of absolutism.

1. Prerequisites for the liberal reforms of Alexander II

Alexander II ascended the throne in 1855. Despite the fact that it was he who had to eliminate the consequences of the Crimean War, the beginning of his reign can be called quite prosperous. For the first time in a long time, there is no doubt about the Emperor's legitimacy. Moreover, this is almost the only Russian emperor who was deliberately prepared to take over the government from childhood. He also believed that the modernization policy is the responsibility of the emperor, the only possible option for a new integration into Europe. He realizes and recognizes Russia's lag behind Europe in economic, social, legal terms, etc. He also realizes that he has practically no time, that this gap must be eliminated as quickly as possible. A circle of progressive and liberal-minded people is formed around Alexander, to whose ideas he is receptive. You can name the Minister of the Interior Lanskoy, the Milyutin brothers, Valuev, the mother of the Dowager Empress Elena Pavlovna, his brother Konstantin Nikolaevich. Thus, a reformist party in power is being created. reform social political liberal

By the middle of the XIX century. the agrarian-peasant question has become the most acute socio-political problem in Russia. Among European states, serfdom remained only in it, hindering economic and socio-political development.

Even the government and conservative circles at the end of the 18th - the middle of the 19th centuries. did not remain aloof from understanding the solution of the peasant question. However, the attempts of the government to soften serfdom, to give the landlords a positive example of managing the peasants, to regulate their relations proved to be ineffective due to the resistance of the serfs. By the middle of the XIX century. the prerequisites that led to the collapse of the feudal system have finally matured. First of all, it has outlived itself economically. The landlord economy, based on the labor of serfs, increasingly fell into decay. This worried the government, which was forced to spend huge amounts of money to support the landlords.

Objectively, serfdom also interfered with the industrial modernization of the country, as it prevented the formation of a free labor market, the accumulation of capital invested in production, an increase in the purchasing power of the population and the development of trade.

The need to abolish serfdom was also conditioned by the fact that the peasants openly protested against it. The popular movement could not but influence the position of the government.

The defeat in the Crimean War played the role of a particularly important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, as it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the country's socio-political system. Exports and imports of goods dropped sharply. The new foreign policy situation that developed after the Peace of Paris testified to Russia's loss of its international prestige and threatened to lose influence in Europe.

2. Reforms in the field of public relations

2.1 Zemstvo reform

It was the most important from a political point of view, introducing new self-government bodies in rural areas and in cities. On January 1, 1864, Alexander II approved the “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” - a legislative act that introduced the zemstvo. It should be borne in mind that for a country whose majority of the population were peasants who had just freed themselves from serfdom, the introduction of local governments was a significant step in the development of political culture. . Elected by various estates of Russian society, zemstvo institutions were fundamentally different from corporate-class organizations, such as noble assemblies. The feudal lords were indignant at the fact that on the bench in the zemstvo assembly "a slave of yesterday is sitting next to his recent master." Indeed, various estates were represented in the zemstvos - nobles, officials, clergy, merchants, industrialists, philistines and peasants. Members of zemstvo assemblies were called vowels. The chairmen of the meetings were the leaders of the noble self-government - the leaders of the nobility. The meetings formed the executive bodies - district and provincial zemstvo councils. Zemstvos received the right to collect taxes for their needs and to hire employees. The sphere of activity of the new bodies of all-estate self-government was limited only to economic and cultural affairs: the maintenance of local means of communication, care for the medical care of the population, public education, local trade and industry, national food, etc.

2.2 Urban reform

Became the next step in changing local government. In 1870, the city regulation was approved, according to which all-estate self-government bodies, city dumas, were created in 509 cities of Russia. They were elected for four years, elections took place on the basis of a property qualification. The right to elect and be elected to the city duma was granted only to taxpayers. The mayor, elected by the Duma, was approved by the governor or the Minister of the Interior.

In 1892, self-government was introduced in 621 cities out of 707. City dumas were engaged in the improvement of cities, the development of health care and public education. Like the zemstvos, the dumas acted under the control of government officials, who could suspend any decision of the city self-government body.

2.3 Judicial reform (1864)

Which replaced the old class court with a new one based on the principles of bourgeois law: the equality of all citizens before the law and the independence of the court from the authorities, the irremovability of judges, the publicity of the court and the competitiveness of the trial with the participation of the prosecutor and the lawyer.

Three types of courts were established: the magistrate's court, the district court, and the judicial chamber. The Magistrate's Court considered petty misdemeanors and civil suits, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. The district court dealt with criminal and civil offenses with the participation of jurors. The Judicial Chamber considered cases of state and political crimes. The highest court was the Senate, which could overturn the decision of the courts. The judicial reform was a decisive step towards the creation of elementary norms of law and order in the country.

2.4 Defeat in the Crimean War

It urgently demanded the reorganization of the army and equipping it with new weapons. In 1861, D. A. Milyutin was appointed Minister of War for the highest dignitaries of Russia in the second half of the 19th century, who led the transformation in the army. The military reform dragged on for 15 years. In the course of it, the army was re-equipped: a steam navy was created, artillery was updated, smooth-bore weapons were replaced with rifled ones, and railways were built to the border. The system of military educational institutions was reformed: military gymnasiums, cadet schools, and military academies were created. The country was divided into 15 military districts, and military administration was centralized. New regulations appeared in the army, focusing on the combat and physical training of soldiers. However, the core of the reform was the Decree of January 1, 1874 on conscription. Instead of recruitment sets, universal military service was introduced for males who had reached the age of 20 at the time of conscription. The term of service in the army was reduced: the 25-year recruitment period was replaced in the ground forces by 6 years, and in the naval forces by 7 years of service. Access to officer schools was opened not only to nobles, but also to representatives of other classes. As a result of these measures, the state was able to have a mobile cadre army.

2.5 Financial reform

The financial sector has been reformed. In 1860 the State Bank was established. The Minister of Finance became the only manager of the budget. For general information, a list of income and expenses was published. The taxation system in the wine trade, which generated huge corruption, was replaced by an excise system (excise is a tax on alcohol producers), from the mid-60s commercial banks began to open in the country.

2.6 Public education reform

The reform of public education provided the opportunity to study at school for children of all classes. In classical gymnasiums, more attention was paid to the humanities, and in real ones, to natural subjects. The university charter of 1863 restored the autonomy and democracy of higher education. Universities had four main faculties. Education in them (as well as in gymnasiums) was paid. Educational reforms allowed the country to have an intellectual elite, but there was still no universal education.

3. Socio-political consequences of the reforms and their assessment in the historical literature.

The reforms of Alexander II were really great in terms of the depth of the changes that they carried out in the social, economic and political system. Most of the scholars who studied and analyzed the reforms, as a rule, were dissatisfied with their half-heartedness and inconsistency. This view is inherent in the left wing of the Russian intelligentsia, which traditionally constituted its majority. But reform is not revolution. Therefore, assessing the social economic reforms, we can only say that they opened the way for the gradual and rather slow development of Russia along the capitalist path.

The reforms were unequal in terms of the impact they had on the development of Russian statehood. In some cases, from the point of view of contemporaries, they were not radical enough, other reforms, from the point of view of the government, were too revolutionary and it took the adoption of a number of regulations to “correct” them somewhat.

The peasant reform of 1861 did not become the starting point for accelerating the economic development of Russia. It did not help Russian society and the state to adequately respond to the challenge of the time - to quickly move from feudalism to capitalism. Growing into capitalism turned out to be very painful for Russia and was accompanied by a revolutionary upheaval. However, the transition to capitalism at a faster pace would be even more painful for Russia.

Zemstvo reform did not form a coherent and centralized system, did not create a body that leads and coordinates the work of all zemstvos. The government strongly opposed this. But, it should be noted that in the post-reform decades, the position of the peasants is clearly improving. Largely thanks to the zemstvos, at least in the field of health care and education. For the first time in the history of Russia, the peasantry received qualified medical care. The result of this was a rapid increase in the population, primarily rural. The zemstvos contributed to education, to its development, zemstvo schools were opened, a veterinary service was established and, as a result, the situation in animal husbandry was improved, and statistics were organized.

The city reform was close to the Zemstvo one. Therefore, the creation of new self-government bodies contributed to the formation of socio-political and cultural life, helped the commercial and industrial development of Russian cities. Judicial reform normally changed the judiciary, procedural and partly substantive law of the Russian Empire. The principles proclaimed in the judicial statutes were bourgeois in nature: the judiciary was separated from the legislative, executive, administrative, the principle of independence and irremovability of judges; the principle of equality of all before the law; an all-estate court is introduced; the advocacy was established; introduced the institution of jurors; introduced the principles of oral, publicity, adversarial legal proceedings; the presumption of innocence was proclaimed.

The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s affected all areas of military affairs. The result of the reform was a harmonious and clear organization of both central and local government. The apparatus was reduced, clerical correspondence decreased. The main drawback of the military command and control system was excessive centralization, which made it impossible for the local authorities to show any independence and initiative in resolving even minor issues. The reform of military educational institutions made it possible to eliminate the shortage of officers and raise the level of their training. However, education was bought mainly by people from the nobility. For representatives of other classes, access to military schools was difficult. However, the proportion of non-nobles in such institutions was constantly growing.

The reforms of the 60s still did not solve the main issue of the reorganization of the army, its ability to quickly deploy in case of war. In general, military reforms were progressive in nature and contributed to the strengthening and improvement of the army's combat capability.

After the Crimean War, it was necessary to look for ways to accelerate economic growth and eliminate Russia's technical backwardness. The main result of the redemption operation was the transition of the bulk of the former serfs to the position of peasant owners.

The increase in the tax burden that fell on the peasant led to a weakening of the reproductive potential of agriculture in the central regions of Russia. Starting from the 80s, the government was forced to radically change the approach to the redemption operation and recognize the need to compare the amount of payments not with the cost of peasant duties to the landowner before the abolition of serfdom, but with the real paying capacity of the peasants

The deposit interest reduction operation was one of the government's failed experiments. In the financial sphere of the budget reform carried out in the 60s of the 19th century, for the first time, the principles of rational organization of the budget process and budgetary management were embodied in a finished form. The budget reform was supplemented by a number of innovations in taxation. The main of them was the introduction of an excise tax system for drinking and the abolition of wine farming.

The decisive role in the industrial upsurge of the second half of the 1960s and early 1970s was played by relatively favorable foreign economic conditions and measures of direct state support for enterprises in the basic industries and railway construction. As a result, during the years of the reign of Alexander II, one of the world's largest railway networks was created in Russia.

Also, the customs policy was radically changed in order to obtain from Western European countries the goods necessary for industry and transport, primarily metallurgy and engineering products.

By the mid-1970s, a relative budgetary equilibrium had been achieved. Deeper and more radical than the financial ones were the reforms of the 1960s in the field of public education and the press, which became inevitable. Industry, transport, Agriculture, trade needed qualified specialists no less than the state and administrative apparatus.

The leading place in the education system was occupied by universities. They were the focus of science and at the same time, from the middle of the 19th century, the center of the revolutionary movement. Due to the fact that tuition at universities was paid, those who studied were much more interested in the revolution than in studies. However, it must be said that the role of paid fees should not be overestimated, since the share of students from low-income strata of the population was in Russian universities higher than anywhere else in Europe.

Conclusion

The time of reforms in the 60-70s of the XIX century was really great, because the autocracy for the first time took a step towards society, and society supported the authorities. This is one of the reasons for the success of the reforms of Alexander II. Another reason is the complex nature of the reforms that affected all aspects of the life of Russian society.

The significance of the liberal reforms lies in the fact that they contributed to the development of capitalist relations in Russia. The process of capitalization of the domestic economy took on a stormy character, especially in the 1880s. In the Russian countryside, a struggle broke out between two ways of developing capitalism in it: the Prussian and the American. This struggle determined the life of the Russian countryside until 1917. The country's industry developed much more actively; This process was especially successful in light industry. Significant changes have taken place in trade and financial areas.

As a result of transformations in the 1860s - 1880s. Russia's economy has made a noticeable breakthrough, trying to catch up with the developed countries of the world that have gone ahead. By the end of the 80s. 19th century The Industrial Revolution ended in Russia. However, the remnants of serfdom and the backwardness of the country in the first half of the XIX century. did not allow her to stand on a par with England, France, Germany.

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What is liberalism

Liberalism is a direction of socio-political and philosophical thought that proclaims human rights and freedoms as the highest value. The influence of the state and other structures, including religion, on a person in a liberal society is usually limited by the constitution. In the economy, liberalism is expressed in the inviolability of private property, freedom of trade and entrepreneurship.

Reasons for liberal reforms

The main reason for liberal reforms is Russia's lagging behind the advanced European countries, which became especially noticeable by the middle of the 19th century. Another reason is the peasant uprisings, the number of which increased sharply by the mid-1850s; popular uprisings threatened the existing state system and autocratic power, so the situation had to be saved.

Prerequisites for reforms

Russian society in all periods of the New Age was very colorful. Completed conservatives here side by side with liberals, zealots of antiquity - with innovators, people with free views; supporters of autocracy tried to get along with adherents of a limited monarchy and republicans. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the contradictions between the "old" and "new" Russians escalated, as a whole galaxy of enlightened nobles grew up, longing for large-scale changes in the country. The imperial house had to make concessions in order to maintain supreme power.

Reform Objectives

The main task of liberal reforms is to overcome the social, political, military and intellectual backwardness of the Russian Empire. Particularly acute was the task of abolishing serfdom, which by that time was morally very outdated, and hindered the economic development of the country. Another task is to show activity precisely “from above”, on the part of the tsarist authorities, until the revolutionaries undertake radical transformations.

Reform of administration of zemstvos and cities

The nobility, after the abolition of serfdom, was concerned about the strengthening of its role in political life countries. The government of the reformers sensitively caught the mood of the ruling class and developed the zemstvo, and a little later, the city reforms.

The reforms were carried out in accordance with the “Regulations on provincial and district local institutions” of January 1, 1864 in 34 provinces of the European part of the empire and the “City Regulations” of June 16, 1870.

	Zemstvo reform	urban reform
Governing bodies	Administrative bodies zemstvo assembly of the province and zemstvo assembly of the county The executive bodies are the zemstvo council of the province and the zemstvo council of the county.	The head of the city duma and council is the mayor. The governing body is the City Council. The executive body is the City Council.
	Opening and financing of schools, hospitals and almshouses; Help for the starving in bad years; The device of local industrial production; Agronomy and veterinary medicine; Statistics.	City improvement. Development of local production and trade. Organization of city markets. Education and healthcare. Establishment sanitary norms and the introduction of fire prevention measures.
	Members of the zemstvo assembly (vowels) were elected every three years by groups of voters (curia): direct in agricultural and urban; multi-stage in the peasant.	Vowels were elected every four years. Three-digit electoral system (small, medium and large taxpayers). Electoral rights had institutions and departments, secular and religious institutions that contributed fees to the city budget.

Zemstvo reform

urban reform

Governing bodies

Administrative bodies zemstvo assembly of the province and zemstvo assembly of the county
The executive bodies are the zemstvo council of the province and the zemstvo council of the county.

The head of the city duma and council is the mayor.
The governing body is the City Council.
The executive body is the City Council.

Opening and financing of schools, hospitals and almshouses;
Help for the starving in bad years;
The device of local industrial production;
Agronomy and veterinary medicine;
Statistics.

City improvement.
Development of local production and trade.
Organization of city markets.
Education and healthcare.
Establishment sanitary norms and the introduction of fire prevention measures.

Members of the zemstvo assembly (vowels) were elected every three years by groups of voters (curia):

direct in agricultural and urban;
multi-stage in the peasant.

Vowels were elected every four years. Three-digit electoral system (small, medium and large taxpayers). Electoral rights had institutions and departments, secular and religious institutions that contributed fees to the city budget.

The main principles of the zemstvo and city reforms were:

Separation of local self-government from administrative power.
Election of governing bodies and all-class representation.
Independence in financial and economic matters.

Democratic judicial reform

The judiciary, of all liberal reforms, is considered the most consistent. Since 1861, work began on the "Basic provisions for the transformation of the judicial part of Russia." In 1864, the sovereign approved modern judicial charters that defined new principles of legal proceedings:

Organizational principles of the court	The dishonesty of the court.
	Irremovability and independence of judges.
	Publicity.
	Delimitation of the powers of the courts.
	Introduction to the institution of jurors.
	Establishment of the institute of forensic investigators.
	Introduction to the Institute of Notaries.
	Election of individual judicial bodies.
	Political investigations are the prerogative of the gendarmerie.
	Death sentences can be passed by the Senate and a military court.
	Changing the system of punishments (cancellation of stigmatization and corporal punishment for women).
Court system

	Special.

The emperor had the right to correct the decisions of all courts through administrative measures.

The overdue reform of the army

The experience of the Crimean War showed that Russia needed a massive army with the necessary reserves and a trained officer corps. The rearmament of the army and the reorganization of the military command and control system are urgently needed. The reform began to be prepared as early as 1861 and was implemented in 1874 with the following steps:

15 military districts have been created.
Establishment of a network of military educational institutions.
New military regulations have been introduced.
Equipping the army with new models of weapons.
Cancellation of the recruiting system.
The introduction of universal conscription for the recruitment of the army.

As a result, the combat effectiveness of the Russian army increased significantly.

Education reform

The establishment of the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864 and the Charter of the Secondary School solved the following problems:

accessibility of education for all classes;
monopolies of the state and the church in the field of education, permission for zemstvos, public associations and individuals to open educational institutions;
gender equality, the opening of higher courses for women;
expanding the autonomy of universities.

The reform affected all three educational levels and was significant for the development of the country.

Accompanying reforms

In addition to the landmark reforms, the following were carried out along the way:

The financial reform of 1860 - 1864, which consisted in the transformation of the banking system and the strengthening of the role of the Ministry of Finance.

The tax reform was manifested in the abolition of wine farming, the introduction of indirect taxes and the determination of the limits of zemstvo taxation.

The censorship reform abolished the preview of works, but introduced a system of sanctions after publication.

Liberal reforms of Alexander II: pros and cons

Name of the reform	Essence of reform
Judicial reform	A unified system of courts was created, while all estates were equal before the law. Court hearings became public and also received media coverage. The parties now had the right to use the services of non-state lawyers.	The reform proclaimed the equality of all groups of the population in rights. The attitude of the state towards a person was now formed on the basis of his actions, and not on the origin.	The reform was inconsistent. For the peasants, special volost courts were created with their own system of punishments, which included beatings. If political cases were considered, then administrative repressions were applied even if the verdict was acquittal.
Zemstvo reform	Changes were made to the system of local self-government. Elections were scheduled for zemstvo and district councils, which were held in two stages. The local government was appointed for a four-year term.	Zemstvos dealt with issues of primary education, health care, taxation, etc. Local authorities were given a certain autonomy.	Most of the seats in the zemstvo authorities were occupied by nobles, there were few peasants and merchants. As a result, all issues affecting the interests of the peasants were resolved in favor of the landowners.
Military reform	Recruitment has been replaced by universal military service, covering all classes. Military districts were created, the main headquarters was founded.	The new system made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and quickly raise a large army if necessary. A large-scale rearmament has been carried out. A network of military schools was created, education in which was available to representatives of all classes. Corporal punishment in the army has been abolished.	In some cases, corporal punishment was retained - for "fined" soldiers.
Peasant reform	The personal independence of the peasant was legally established, he was also given a certain allotment of land for permanent use, with the subsequent right of redemption.	The obsolete and obsolete serfdom was finally abolished. There was an opportunity to significantly raise the standard of living of the rural population. Thanks to this, it was possible to eliminate the danger of peasant riots, which became commonplace in the country in the 1850s. The reform made it possible to negotiate with the landowners, who remained full owners of all their land, with the exception of small plots allocated for peasants.	The quitrent was preserved, which the peasants were obliged to pay to the landowner for several years for the right to use the land;
educational reform	A system of real schools was introduced, in which, unlike classical gymnasiums, the emphasis was on teaching mathematics and the natural sciences. A significant number of research laboratories have been established.	The people had the opportunity to receive a versatile and more secular education, to master the sciences in their modern (at that time) state. In addition, higher education courses for women began to open. The advantage for the ruling class was the elimination of the danger of the spread of revolutionary ideas, since young people were now educated in Russia, and not in the west.	Graduates of real schools were restricted from entering higher specialized educational institutions, and they could not enter the university at all.
urban reform	A system of city self-government was introduced, including city Duma, council and electoral assembly.	The reform allowed the population of cities to equip their urban economy: build roads, infrastructure, credit institutions, marinas, etc. This made it possible to revive the country's commercial and industrial development, as well as to introduce the population to civilian life.	The urban reform was openly nationalistic and confessional in nature. Among the deputies of the city duma, the number of non-Christians should not exceed a third, and the mayor should not have been a Jew.

Results of reforms

The "Great Reforms", as they are usually called in historical science, significantly modernized and modernized the Russian Empire. The class and property inequality of various segments of the population was significantly smoothed out, although it persisted until the October Revolution. The level of education of the population, including the lower classes, has noticeably increased.

At the same time, clashes escalated between the "enlightened bureaucrats" who developed and implemented reforms, and the aristocratic nobility, who wanted to preserve the old order and their influence in the country. Because of this, Alexander II was forced to maneuver, removing the "enlightened bureaucrats" from business and reappointing them to their posts if necessary.

Significance of reforms

The "great reforms" had a dual meaning, which was originally planned by the tsarist government. On the one hand, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens has improved the social situation in the country; the widespread dissemination of education had a positive impact on the modernization of the Russian economy and contributed to the development of science; military reform made it possible to replace the old, expensive and inefficient army with a more modern one, fully meeting its main tasks and causing minimal harm to the personality of a soldier in peacetime. The "Great Reforms" contributed to the disintegration of the remnants of the feudal system and the development of capitalism in Russia.

On the other hand, the liberal reforms strengthened the strength and authority of autocratic power and made it possible to combat the spread of radical revolutionary ideas. It just so happened that the most faithful supporters of unlimited royal power were precisely the liberal “enlightened bureaucrats”, and not the arrogant aristocratic elite. Education had a special role to play: young people had to be taught to think seriously in order to prevent the formation of superficial radical views in their minds.

By the middle of the 19th century. Russia's lagging behind the advanced capitalist states in the economic and socio-political spheres was clearly manifested. International events (the Crimean War) showed a significant weakening of Russia in the foreign policy field as well. Therefore, the main goal of the internal policy of the government in the second half of the 19th century. was bringing the economic and socio-political system of Russia in line with the needs of the time.

In domestic politics Russia in the second half of the 19th century. there are three stages:

1) the second half of the 50s - the beginning of the 60s - the preparation and implementation of the peasant reform;

2) - 60-70s carrying out liberal reforms;

3) 80-90s economic modernization, strengthening of statehood and social stability by traditional conservative administrative methods.

Defeat in the Crimean War played the role of an important political prerequisite for the abolition of serfdom, because it demonstrated the backwardness and rottenness of the socio-political system of the country. Russia has lost international prestige and almost lost influence in Europe. The eldest son of Nicholas 1 - Alexander 11 came to the throne in 1855, went down in history as the tsar "Liberator". His phrase about “it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it begins to be abolished from below” meant that the ruling circles finally came to the idea of the need to reform the state.

Members of the royal family, representatives of the highest bureaucracy took part in the preparation of the reforms - Minister of Internal Affairs Lanskoy, Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs - Milyutin, Adjutant General Rostovtsev. After the abolition of the kr.prav, it became necessary to change local government in 1864. zemstvo reform. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. The entire population was divided into 3 electoral groups - curia. 1 curia - landowners with > 2 acres of land or owners of real estate from 15,000 rubles; 2 curia - urban, urban industrialists and merchants with a turnover of at least 6,000 rubles / year were allowed here; 3 curia - rural. For the rural curia, the elections were multistage. The curiae were dominated by landlords. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited to solving economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. Despite this, the zemstvos played a huge role in the development of education and health care. And they became the centers of the formation of the liberal noble and bourgeois opposition. The structure of zemstvo institutions: It is a legislative and executive body. The chairmen were local marshals of the nobility. Provincial and county assemblies worked independently of each other. They met only once a year to coordinate actions. Executive bodies - provincial and district councils were elected at zemstvo meetings. Solved the problem of tax collection, while a certain% remained in place. Zemstvo institutions were subordinate only to the Senate. The governor did not interfere in the activities of local institutions, but only monitored the legality of actions.

Positivity in the reform:

omnisoslovnost

Flaws:

election

the beginning of the separation of powers is admitted to the center of the state institution,

the beginning of the formation of civil society consciousness could not influence the policy of the center

Unequal voting rights were delivered

contacts between zemstvos were prohibited

urban reform. (1870) "City Regulations" created all-estate bodies in the cities - city dumas and city councils headed by the mayor. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. The leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. It was under the strict control of the government administration.

The candidacy of the mayor was approved by the governor.

Judicial reform :

1864 - New court statutes promulgated.

Provisions:

the estate system of courts was abolished

all were declared equal before the law

publicity was introduced

competitiveness of legal proceedings

presumption of innocence

irremovability of judges

unified system of justice

There are two types of courts:

1. Magistrates' courts - considered minor civil cases, the damage for which did not exceed 500 rubles. Judges were elected at county assemblies and approved by the senate.

2. General courts were of 3 types: Criminal and grave - in district court. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in judicial chamber. The highest court was Senate. Judges in general courts were appointed by the tsar, and jurors were elected at provincial assemblies.

Flaws: small estate courts continued to exist - for the peasants. For political processes the Special Presence of the Senate was created, meetings were held behind closed doors, which violated the attack of publicity.

Military reform :

1874 - Charter on military service on the all-class military service of men who have reached the age of 20. The term of active service was set in the ground forces - 6 years, in the navy - 7 years. Recruitment was abolished. Valid military service determined by the educational qualification. Persons with higher education served 0.5 years. To raise the competence of the top military leadership, the military ministry was transformed into general staff. The whole country was divided into 6 military regions. The army was reduced, military settlements were liquidated. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of steel artillery pieces, the improvement of the horse park, the development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, cadet schools and academies were created. All this made it possible to reduce the size of the army in peacetime and, at the same time, to increase its combat effectiveness.

They were exempted from military duty if there was 1 child in the family, if they had 2 children, or if elderly parents were on his payroll. Cane discipline was abolished. Humanization of relations in the army has passed.

Reform in the field of education :

1864 In fact, an accessible all-estate education was introduced Along with state schools, zemstvo, parish, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. The curriculum in gymnasiums was determined by universities, which created the possibility of a system of succession. During this period, secondary education for women was developed, and women's gymnasiums began to be created. Women are beginning to be admitted to universities as free students. University arr.: Alexander 2 gave the universities more freedom:

students could create student orgs

received the right to create their own newspapers and magazines without censorship

all volunteers were admitted to the universities

students were given the right to choose a rector

stud self-management was introduced in the form of a council of a fact

corporative systems of students and teachers were created.

Significance of reforms:

contributed to the more rapid development of capitalist relations in Russia.

contributed to the beginning of the formation of bourgeois freedoms in the Russian society (freedom of speech, personality, organizations, etc.). The first steps were taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

contributed to the formation of civic consciousness.

contributed to the rapid development of culture and education in Russia.

The initiators of the reforms were some top government officials, the “liberal bureaucracy”. This explained the inconsistency, incompleteness and narrowness of most of the reforms. The assassination of Alexander II changed the course of the government. And the proposal of Loris-Melikov was rejected.

The implementation of reforms gave impetus to the rapid growth of capitalism in all areas of industry. A free labor force appeared, the process of capital accumulation became more active, the domestic market expanded and ties with the world grew.

Features of the development of capitalism in the industry of Russia had a number of features:

1)Industry wear multilayered character, i.e. large-scale machine industry coexisted with manufacturing and small-scale (handicraft) production.

2) uneven distribution of industry across the territory of Russia. Highly developed areas of St. Petersburg, Moscow. Ukraine 0- highly developed and undeveloped - Siberia, middle Asia, Far East.

3)Uneven development by industry. Textile production was the most advanced in terms of technical equipment, heavy industry (mining, metallurgical, oil) was rapidly gaining momentum. Mechanical engineering was poorly developed. Characteristic for the country was state intervention in the industrial sector through loans, government subsidies, government orders, financial and customs policies. This laid the foundation for the formation of a system of state capitalism. The insufficiency of domestic capital caused an influx of foreign capital. Investors from Europe were attracted by cheap labor, raw materials and, consequently, the possibility of making high profits. Trade. In the second half of the 18th century completed the formation of the all-Russian market. The main commodity was agricultural products, primarily bread. Trade in manufactured goods grew not only in the city, but also in the countryside. Iron ore and coal were widely sold. Wood, oil. Foreign trade - bread (export). Cotton was imported (imported) from America, metals and cars, luxury goods from Europe. Finance. The State Bank was created, which received the right to issue banknotes. State funds were distributed only by the Ministry of Finance. A private and state credit system was formed, it contributed to the development of the most important industries (railway construction). Foreign capital was invested in banking, industry, railway construction and played a significant role in the financial life of Russia. Capitalism in Russia was established in 2 stages. 60-70 years were the 1st stage, when the restructuring of industry was going on. 80-90 economic recovery.

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