What is the question of philosophy. Basic Philosophical Questions

Agnosticism - Philosophical doctrine, which denies the finally resolved question of the cognizability of the world, the attainability of truth, limits the role of science only to the cognizability of phenomena (Protagoras, Kant, J. Berkeley, Hume).

Axiology - Philosophical doctrine of the nature of values.

Anthropocentrism - The view that man is the center and the highest goal of the universe.

In Marxist philosophy, it is believed that the relations of production are:

defining relationship between people.

According to the pragmatic concept of truth:

Truth is that which is useful and helps to solve unresolved problems.

In the structure of personality, Freud distinguishes:

It, over I, I

In Plato's Philosophy, the idea of ​​a horse differs from a real live horse in that:

The idea is primary, the horse is secondary.

In Kant's Philosophy "thing in itself":

That which causes sensations in us but cannot itself be known .

"The war of all against all is a natural state":

Will as the main principle of life considered:

Schopenhauer

Time - A set of relations expressing the coordination of states that change each other, their sequence and duration. Time is one-dimensional, irreversible, homogeneous.

The highest form of motion of matter:

social movement.

Identification of the causes of hereditary relationships, summing up single phenomena under a general law is typical for:

Explanations.

Hegel: " Phenomenology of Spirit”, “Science of Logic”, “Philosophy of History”.

Marx considers the main thing in society:

Mode of production

Global problems:

Problems on the solution of which the survival of mankind depends.

War and peace, demography, ecology.

Gnoseology - Philosophical doctrine of knowledge. Founder J. Locke.

Deism - A religious-philosophical doctrine that recognizes God as a world mind that constructed an expedient "machine" of nature and gave it laws and movement, but rejects the further intervention of God in the self-movement of nature (i.e., "God's providence", miracles, etc.) and does not allow other ways to the knowledge of God, except for reason. It became widespread among the thinkers of the Enlightenment and played a significant role in the development of freethinking in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Motion - Any change, interaction, unfolding in space and time. It is absolute and relative.

Dialectic - A system of universal principles, but prescriptions that guide the cognitive and practical activities of people. The idea of ​​mutually exclusive and at the same time presupposing each other opposites.

"Reliable knowledge of the world is impossible," states:

Skepticism.

Dualistic philosophy is characteristic of:

Rene Descartes.

If in the prediction the theory of the empirical consequence does not reveal in practice, then one speaks of:

Falsification of knowledge.

The laws of dialectics were first formulated by: Hegel.

The law of dialectics, answering the question about the source of development:

The law of dialectics revealing the source of self-movement and development:

The law of unity and struggle of opposites.

The law of dialectics concealing the most general mechanism of development:

The law of transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones.

The law of dialectics characterizing the direction, form and result:

Negation of negation.

Idealism - The direction of philosophy, which solves the main question of philosophy in favor of the primacy of the spirit, consciousness, subjectivity.

The main forms of idealism are objective and subjective.

The first asserts the existence of a spiritual principle outside and independently of human consciousness, the second either denies the existence of any reality outside the consciousness of the subject, or considers it as something completely determined by his activity.

The largest representatives of objective idealism: in ancient philosophy - Plato, Plotinus, Proclus; in modern times - G. W. Leibniz, F. W. Schelling, G. W. F. Hegel.

Subjective idealism is most clearly expressed in the teachings of J. Berkeley, D. Hume, and the early J. G. Fichte (18th century). In common usage, "idealist" (from the word "ideal") often means an unselfish person striving for lofty goals.

The ideological head of the Slavophiles is:

Individualism - Becoming your own interests above the interests of society .

Individual consciousness fatalism

Irrationalism - Reduces the role of the mind.

Kant wrote: Moral duty"

Collectivism - The formation of the interests of society above their own.

The concept ... characteristic of V. Solovyov:

Unity.

Who first used the term "philosophy"?

"LOGOS" in the philosophical doctrine of Heraclitus means:

A universal law to which everyone in the world is subject.

Marx " Capital"

Materialism - The direction of philosophy, which solves the basic question of philosophy in favor of primary matter, nature, being objective. The term "materialism" has been used since the 17th century. mainly in the sense of physical ideas about matter, and from the beginning. 18th century in a philosophical sense to oppose materialism to idealism. Historical forms of materialism: ancient materialism (Democritus, Epicurus), Renaissance materialism (B. Telesio, J. Bruno), metaphysical (mechanistic) materialism of the 17th-18th centuries. (G. Galileo, F. Bacon, T. Hobbes, P. Gassendi, J. Locke, B. Spinoza; French materialism of the 18th century - J. La Mettrie, C. Helvetius, P. Holbach, D. Diderot), anthropological materialism (L. Feuerbach), dialectical materialism (K. Marx, F. Engels, V. I. Lenin).

Metaphysics - Philosophical doctrine of the ultimate, superexperienced principles and principles of being.

Milesian school - Conventional designation of the first ancient Greek natural philosophers and naturalists who lived in the 6th century. BC e. in Miletus (Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes).

The thought whose name is associated with the discovery of the unconscious:

The thinker who believes that man is driven by sexual instincts:

Naturalistic approach to society:

In it, society is considered as the highest creation of nature, as a natural continuation of cosmic laws.

Impossible to fake:

The existence of God.

Social economic philosophy: Marx

Restriction or suppression of sensual desires, voluntary transfer of sensual will:

Asceticism.

Ontology- philosophical doctrine of being. Francis Bacon, founder of the doctrine of ontology.

Founder of idealism:

Plato (objective idealism).

Founder of materialism:

Democritus.

The main idea of ​​the philosophy of the French Enlightenment:

The priority of reason as the highest authority in solving the problems of human society.

The basic principle of ancient philosophy:

Cosmocentrism.

The main idea of ​​Westernism is:

Russia is developing along the European path.

The main claim of empiricism is:

All human knowledge is based on experience.

Falsified hypotheses are being filed about:

The existence of life on earth

According to Kant, before the formation of man as a moral being, the following is of fundamental importance:

Moral debt.

They posed the problem of being in antiquity:

“Act in such a way that the maximum of your will can at the same time become the principle of universal legislation”:

Pragmatism - Western philosophy.

Representative of medieval philosophy:

Thomas Aquinas.

Representatives of German philosophy:

Kant, Hegel, Feuerbach .

The cause of inequality in human society, Rousseau believed:

Own.

Progress -

Simple indivisible substance according to Leibniz:

Space - A set of relations expressing the coordination of existing objects, from the location relative to each other and the relative size. The space is three-dimensional, homogeneous, isotropic.

A work about a man of his mortality and death:

The method developed by Freud is called:

Psychoanalysis.

Growing interdependence of different regions of the world:

Globalization.

Revolution - Deep qualitative changes in the development of any phenomena of nature, society or knowledge (for example, the social revolution, as well as the geological, industrial, scientific and technological, cultural revolution, the revolution in physics, in philosophy, etc.).

Regress - Type of development, which is characterized by a transition from higher to lower, processes of degradation, lowering the level of organization, loss of the ability to perform certain functions; also includes moments of stagnation, a return to obsolete forms and structures. The opposite of progress.

The representative would agree with the statement “thinking is the same product of brain activity as bile is a product of activity”:

Vulgar materialism.

The secular ideological position of the Renaissance opposing scholasticism and the spiritual dominance of the church:

Humanism.

The originality of my philosophical type is primarily in the fact that I put not being, but freedom, as the basis of philosophy:

N. Berdyaev.

Sensationalism - The direction in the theory of knowledge, according to which sensations, perceptions are the basis and main form of reliable knowledge. Opposes rationalism.

Sobornost in the Philosophy of the Slavophils:

Free unity of people in Christ.

The set of religious doctrines and teachings about the essence and action of God:

Theology

Solovyov: "The meaning of love", "beauty in nature", "justification of good".

According to the sociology of Marxism, the main driving force behind the development of society is:

Class struggle

Medieval Philosophy: God

The essence of Socrates' ethical rationalism:

"Virtue is the result of knowing what is good, while the absence of virtue is the result of knowledge."

The essence of the ethical teaching of Epicurus is that:

You have to enjoy life.

The essence of the problem of biology and sociology in man is:

The interaction and correlation of genes about education.

Scholasticism - a type of religious philosophy characterized by a combination of theological and dogmatic premises with a rationalistic methodology and an interest in formal logical problems.

The systematizer of scholasticism is Thomas Aquinas.

The thesis belonging to Thales:

"Know thyself".

Hegel's theory of development, which is based on the unity and struggle of opposites:

Dialectics.

The theory of scientific knowledge is called:

Epistimology.

Fatalism - The idea of ​​the inevitable predetermination of events in the world; belief in an impersonal fate (ancient stoicism), in an unchanging divine predestination (especially characteristic of Islam), etc.

Philosophy from Greek:

Love for Wisdom .

The philosopher who considered logic the main tool of knowledge:

Aristotle

Philosophical direction, recognizing the mind as the basis of knowledge and behavior:

Rationalism.

A characteristic feature of medieval philosophers:

Theocentrism.

The central philosophical problem of D. Hume:

Cognition

"Man is the measure of all things":

Protagoras

What is a worldview?

Worldview - a set of the most general views on the world and the place of man in it.

The era of restoration of the ideals of antiquity in Europe:

Renaissance (Renaissance).

Eschatology - The doctrine of the final fate of the world and man.

The main object of study of the Renaissance:

Schopenhauer - Representative of the philosophy of life.

Evolution - Irreversible historical development of living nature.

Existentialism - Philosophy of existence, existence (human existence); the main modes (manifestations) of human existence - care, fear, determination, conscience; a person sees existence as the root of his being in borderline situations (struggle, suffering, death). Comprehending himself as an existence, a person acquires freedom, which is the choice of himself, his essence, imposing responsibility for everything that happens in the world on him.

Briefly about philosophy: the most important and basic about philosophy in brief
The main question of philosophy: being and consciousness

The main, basic, problem of philosophy is the question of the relation of thinking to being, spirit to nature, consciousness to matter. The concepts of "being" - "nature" - "matter" and "spirit" - "thinking" - "consciousness" in this case are used as synonyms.

In the existing world there are two groups, two classes of phenomena: material phenomena, that is, existing outside and independently of consciousness, and spiritual phenomena (ideal, existing in consciousness).

The term "basic question of philosophy" was introduced by F. Engels in 1886 in his work "Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy". Some thinkers deny the significance of the main question of philosophy, consider it far-fetched, devoid of cognitive meaning and significance. But something else is also clear: it is impossible to ignore the opposition of the material and the ideal. Obviously, the subject of thought and the thought of the subject are not the same thing.

Already Plato noted those who took the idea for the primary, and those who took the world of things for the primary.

F. Schelling spoke about the relationship between the objective, real world, which is "on the other side of consciousness", and the "ideal world", located "on this side of consciousness".

The importance of this issue lies in the fact that the construction of a holistic knowledge about the surrounding world and the place of man in it depends on its reliable resolution, and this is the main task of philosophy.

Matter and consciousness (spirit) are two inseparable and at the same time opposite characteristics of being. In this regard, there are two sides of the main question of philosophy - ontological and epistemological.

The ontological (existential) side of the main question of philosophy lies in the formulation and solution of the problem: what is primary - matter or consciousness?

The epistemological (cognitive) side of the main question: is the world cognizable or unknowable, what is primary in the process of cognition?

Depending on the ontological and epistemological aspects in philosophy, the main directions are distinguished - respectively, materialism and idealism, as well as empiricism and rationalism.


The ontological side of the main question of philosophy

When considering the ontological (existential) side of the main issue of philosophy, the following areas are distinguished:

1. Materialism (founder Democritus) - a direction in philosophy, whose supporters believed that in the relationship between matter and consciousness, matter is primary. Matter exists really, independently of consciousness; is an independent substance; develops according to its internal laws; consciousness (spirit) is a property of highly organized matter to reflect itself; consciousness is determined by matter (being).

A special direction of materialism is vulgar materialism (Fogt and others), whose representatives absolutize the role of matter, study matter from the point of view of physics, mathematics and chemistry, ignore consciousness as an essence and its ability to influence matter in response.

2. Idealism - a direction of philosophy, whose supporters in the relationship of matter and consciousness considered consciousness (idea, spirit) to be primary.

Two directions:

Objective idealism (Plato, Leibniz, Hegel, etc.): only the idea really exists; the "world of ideas" originally exists in the World Mind; the "world of ideas" objectively exists independently of our consciousness; the "world of things" is only the embodiment of the "world of ideas"; God the Creator plays a big role in transforming a “pure idea” into a concrete thing;

Subjective idealism (Berkeley, Hume): ideas (images) of material things exist only in the human mind, through sensory sensations; outside the consciousness of an individual, neither matter nor ideas exist.

3. Dualism (Descartes) - a trend of philosophy, whose supporters recognized the equal existence of two opposite and interconnected sides of a single being - matter and spirit. Material things come from material substance, ideas - from spiritual. In man, both substances are combined at the same time.

4. Deism (French enlighteners of the 18th century) - a direction in philosophy, whose supporters recognized the existence of God, who, having once created the world, no longer participates in its further development. Deists considered matter to be spiritualized and did not oppose matter and spirit (consciousness).

The epistemological side of the main question of philosophy

When considering the epistemological (cognitive) side of the main issue of philosophy, the following areas are distinguished:

Empiricism (sensualism);
rationalism;
irrationalism;
gnosticism;
agnosticism.

1. Empiricism/sensualism (founded by F. Bacon) is a direction of philosophy, whose representatives believed that only experience and sensory sensations could be the basis of knowledge.

2. Rationalism (founded by R. Descartes) - a trend of philosophy, whose supporters believed that true (reliable) knowledge can only be derived directly from the mind and does not depend on sensory experience. First, there is only doubt in everything, and doubt is a thought, an activity of the mind. Secondly, there are truths that are obvious to the mind (axioms) and do not need any experimental proof, for example: “God exists”, “A square has equal angles”, “The whole is greater than its part”, etc.

3. Irrationalism (Nietzsche, Schopenhauer) - a special direction, whose supporters believed that the world is chaotic, has no internal logic, and therefore will never be known by the mind.

4. Gnosticism (as a rule, materialists) is a philosophical trend, whose supporters believe that the world is cognizable and the possibilities of cognition are not limited.

5. Agnosticism (E. Kant and others) - a direction whose representatives believe that the world is unknowable, and the possibilities of cognition are limited by the cognitive capabilities of the human mind. Based on the finiteness and limitations of the cognitive capabilities of the human mind, there are riddles (contradictions) that will never be solved by a person, for example: “God exists”, “God does not exist”. However, according to Kant, even what is included in the cognitive capabilities of the human mind will still never be known, since the mind can only know the reflection of a thing in sensory sensations, but will never know the inner essence of this thing - “the thing in itself”. .....................................

A philosophical question is always a question about the grounds for judgments or actions. The grounds are ontological (about the foundations of existence), epistemological (about the foundations of knowledge, criteria of truth) and axiological (about value, normative foundations).

It is necessary to strongly disrespect the achievements of philosophy and science over many centuries, or maintain ignorant innocence in relation to them, in order to declare the complete unresolved problems of being, non-being, truth, the meaning of life, the mission of mankind, etc.

But one should not go to the other extreme, exaggerating the importance of philosophy and hoping that some philosophical discovery will suddenly transform the world. Philosophy develops, changes along with other areas of the spirit: sciences, art, literature, morality, social, political and legal ideas.

In the current situation of global aggravation of conflicts, wars and violence, a wide reverse transit in many countries from democracy to authoritarianism, as well as global polarization between the richest, most advanced societies and poor societies, deprived of something, offended, slipping into aggression, to the fore axiological questions emerge.

The problems of normative foundations arise with special exactingness and acuteness when values, moral, legal, humanistic, religious principles conflict.

What kind of violence, restriction of rights and freedoms is acceptable to prevent violence (especially in the form of terror)?

If opening borders to unfortunate refugees threatens to harm local residents, is there a balance and how to find it?

Can revolutions, revolutionary violence, the overthrow of governments in general be justified? Or are there limits to the cruelty of repressive regimes, when the violent overthrow of power is already justified?

What are the criteria for the legitimacy of post-revolutionary regimes?

What principles should underlie assistance to backward countries if the past experience of such assistance (financial, food, medical, etc.) led to negative consequences: overpopulation, conservation of backwardness, crime, violence, wars?

You might think that such questions are not philosophical, but relate to politics, ideology, social sciences. That's the problem, that they are engaged in completely different people and institutions that "do not bother" with philosophy. The results are visible and often disastrous.

Philosophy, on the other hand, was locked up in the "ivory tower" (more precisely, in university departments and special journals isolated from the world). Or rather, the philosophers themselves locked themselves in there, always ready to speculate with a thoughtful air about the “high”: being and non-being, transcendences and semantic worlds, about “how to get the question” and about the mission of mankind.

From the moment a person begins to think, he strives to understand the world around him and his own existence. He tried to explain this with myths, superstitions and religions on the one hand, and science and philosophy on the other. Religion offers answers to many of these questions, but it is based on divine intervention, which the church considers "authoritative", and is expressed dogmatically, irrational faith. Science and philosophy abandon dogmas and try to answer these questions with the help of reason, logic and experience. Philosophy is a rather broad and complex concept, but its essence can be reduced to finding answers to the 10 questions below.

1. What is the nature of the universe?

Where did she come from? When did she start to exist? Why did she appear? What influences its change? Does it develop or collapse? Does it function on its own, or does it need some kind of deliberate control to keep it from turning into chaos?

2. Is there any Supreme Being?

If so, what is His nature? Did he create the universe? Does He control her, and if so, at what level? What is His relationship with man? Can He interfere in the affairs of man? Is He good? If He is so good and all-powerful, then why does evil exist?

3. What is the place of man in the universe?

Is man the highest form of development in the universe, or is he just an insignificant grain of sand in infinite space? Is the human spirit a product of some higher spiritual forces or has it evolved from matter? How is the Universe set up in relation to a person: friendly, indifferent or completely hostile?

4. What is reality?

What is consciousness, and what is thought? Are the thoughts real? What is more important: consciousness or matter? Did consciousness create matter, or did matter evolve into consciousness? Where do ideas come from? Do thoughts have any effect on our lives or are they just fantasies? What is Truth? Is there a universal Truth that is always true for all people, or is it individual for everyone?

5. What determines the fate of each person?

Is a person the creator and driving force of his life, or does he live under the influence of a force over which he has no control? Is there free will or is our life determined by external factors, and if so, what are these factors? Is there some higher power that can interfere in our lives? Or is everything predetermined from the beginning of time? Or is our life a random set of events, phenomena and cases? Is there some other life control mechanism that we don't know about?

6. What is good and evil?

What is morality? What is ethics? Who accepted the boundaries of good and bad, right and wrong? By what principle? Is there an absolute standard for determining good or bad regardless of personal opinion? What to do if the decisions of other people (society, authorities), which determine the scope of good and bad, contradict personal beliefs? Should we obey others or follow our own conscience? If, as an answer to the fifth question, we assume that we do not have free will, then what difference does it make how we act in life, good or bad? If we have no choice, will something change from what we will be, good or evil?

7. Why is our life the way it is?

What should be the ideal life? What would a utopian society or heaven on earth look like? Is it even possible to create a utopia? If so, how? Will utopia provide personal freedom? What will have to be done with those who will be against the utopian system? If you start to control or punish them, will it remain a utopia?

8. What is the ideal relationship between the individual and the state?

When does the individual serve the state or when does the state serve the individual? What is the ideal form of government? When does a person have the right not to obey the dictatorship of the state? What is the maximum allowable degree of state influence? In what case will a person who protests against the established order turn out to be right?

9. What is education?

What is important for young people to know and what is not? Who should control education: parents, the student himself, society or the state? Should a person be educated in order to be free and live according to his own interests? Or should he subordinate his desires to the service of other people or the state?

10. What happens after death?

Is death the end of everything, or is there a soul in man that continues to exist after death? If there is a soul, is it immortal, or will it eventually cease to exist as well? If the soul continues to exist after death, what does that existence look like? If existence after death is possible, will those who behaved "good" be rewarded, and will those who behave "bad" be punished? If so, how can you reconcile this with the predetermination of fate?