Nuclear energy is used for purposes. Application of nuclear energy: problems and prospects

Although the nucleus consists of nucleons, however, the mass of the nucleus is not just the sum of the masses of the nucleons. The energy that holds these nucleons together is observed as the difference in the mass of the nucleus and the masses of its constituent individual nucleons, up to a factor c 2 , which relates mass and energy by the equation E = m ⋅ c 2 . (\displaystyle E=m\cdot c^(2).) Thus, by determining the mass of an atom and the mass of its components, one can determine the average energy per nucleon holding various nuclei together.

From the graph, it can be seen that very light nuclei have less binding energy per nucleon than nuclei that are slightly heavier (on the left side of the graph). This is the reason why thermonuclear reactions (that is, the fusion of light nuclei) release energy. Conversely, very heavy nuclei on the right side of the graph have lower binding energies per nucleon than medium-mass nuclei. In this regard, the fission of heavy nuclei is also energetically favorable (that is, it occurs with the release of nuclear energy). It should also be noted that during fusion (on the left side) the mass difference is much larger than during fission (on the right side).

The energy required to completely divide the nucleus into individual nucleons is called binding energy E from the core. Specific binding energy (that is, the binding energy per nucleon, ε = E With / A, where A- the number of nucleons in the nucleus, or mass number), is not the same for different chemical elements and even for isotopes of the same chemical element. The specific binding energy of a nucleon in a nucleus varies on average from 1 MeV for light nuclei (deuterium) up to 8.6 MeV for nuclei of medium mass (with a mass number A≈ 100 ). For heavy nuclei ( A≈ 200 ), the specific binding energy of a nucleon is less than that of nuclei of average mass, by approximately 1 MeV, so that their transformation into nuclei of average weight (division into 2 parts) is accompanied by the release of energy in an amount of about 1 MeV per nucleon, or about 200 MeV per core. The transformation of light nuclei into heavier nuclei gives an even greater energy gain per nucleon. So, for example, the reaction of the combination of deuterium and tritium nuclei

1 D 2 + 1 T 3 → 2 He 4 + 0 n 1

accompanied by an energy release of 17.6 MeV, i.e. 3.5 MeV per nucleon.

Nuclear fission

The appearance of 2.5 neutrons per fission event makes it possible to carry out a chain reaction if at least one of these 2.5 neutrons can produce a new fission of the uranium nucleus. Normally, the emitted neutrons do not immediately fission the uranium nuclei, but must first be slowed down to thermal velocities (2200 m/s at T=300 K). Slowdown is achieved most effectively with the help of surrounding atoms of another element with a small A, such as hydrogen, carbon, etc. of a material called a moderator.

Some other nuclei can also fission by capturing slow neutrons, such as 233U or 239. However, fission by fast neutrons (high energy) of such nuclei as 238 U (it is 140 times more than 235 U) or 232 (it is 400 times more than 235 U in the earth's crust) is also possible.

The elementary theory of fission was created by Niels Bohr and J. Wheeler using the drop model nucleus.

Nuclear fission can also be achieved with fast alpha particles, protons, or deuterons. However, these particles, unlike neutrons, must have a high energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier of the nucleus.

Release of nuclear energy

Exothermic nuclear reactions are known to release nuclear energy.

Usually, to obtain nuclear energy, a nuclear chain reaction is used to fission the nuclei of uranium-235 or plutonium, less often other heavy nuclei (uranium-238, thorium-232). Nuclei are divided when a neutron hits them, and new neutrons and fission fragments are obtained. Fission neutrons and fission fragments have a large kinetic energy. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this kinetic energy is quickly converted into heat.

Another way to release nuclear energy is thermonuclear fusion. In this case, two nuclei of light elements are combined into one heavy one. In nature, such processes occur on the Sun and in other stars, being the main source of their energy.

Many atomic nuclei are unstable. Over time, some of these nuclei spontaneously transform into other nuclei, releasing energy. This phenomenon is called radioactive decay.

Applications of nuclear energy

Division

At present, of all sources of nuclear energy, the energy released during the fission of heavy nuclei has the greatest practical application. Under the conditions of a shortage of energy resources, nuclear energy on fission reactors is considered the most promising in the coming decades. In nuclear power plants, nuclear energy is used to generate heat used to generate electricity and heating. Nuclear power plants have solved the problem of ships with an unlimited navigation area (

Wind energy

Wind energy is a branch of energy that specializes in the use of wind energy - the kinetic energy of air masses in the atmosphere. Since wind energy is a consequence of the activity of the sun, it is classified as a renewable energy. wind energy cannot yet be considered a worthy competitor to traditional nuclear, hydro and thermal power plants. The average nuclear power plant generates approximately 1.3 thousand MW of electricity - more than the four largest wind farms in the world.

According to the American Wind Energy Association, the cost of building a wind farm has fallen to $1 million per MW, which is about the same as building a nuclear power plant. In terms of investment efficiency, wind power plants are superior only to gas ones (600 thousand dollars per 1 MW). However, unlike gas, wind energy is free. Wind generators do not consume fossil fuels. The operation of a wind turbine with a capacity of 1 MW over 20 years of operation saves approximately 29 thousand tons of coal or 92 thousand barrels of oil. A 1 MW wind generator reduces annual atmospheric emissions of 1800 tons of CO2, 9 tons of SO2, 4 tons of nitrogen oxides.

Its big advantage over nuclear power is that there is no problem of spent fuel storage and processing. Despite the fact that in twenty years the cost of wind electricity has decreased from 40 to 5 cents per kilowatt and has come close to the cost of electricity produced by burning oil, gas, coal and nuclear energy (in the US, its prices are 2... 3 cents per kilowatt), it will be difficult to overcome this gap.

Since 1978, the US has spent more than $11 billion in public funds on scientific research in this industry, but the results of such investments have so far been small. To date, clean energy accounts for no more than 8% of the electricity generated by all power plants in the United States. According to the forecast of the US Department of Energy, its share by 2025 will increase by only 0.5%. If we subtract from this the energy produced by hydroelectric power plants, then the figures will be even more modest - 2.1% in 2001 and 3.3% in 2025.

Nuclear power is a branch of the energy industry that is engaged in the production and use of nuclear energy (the term Nuclear power was previously used).

Usually, a chain nuclear fission reaction of uranium-235 or plutonium nuclei is used to produce nuclear energy. Nuclei fission when a neutron hits them, and new neutrons and fission fragments are obtained. Fission neutrons and fission fragments have high kinetic energy. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this kinetic energy is quickly converted into heat.

Although in any field of energy the primary source is nuclear energy (for example, the energy of solar nuclear reactions in hydroelectric and fossil fuel power plants, the energy of radioactive decay in geothermal power plants), only the use of controlled reactions in nuclear reactors refers to nuclear energy.

Nuclear energy is produced in nuclear power plants, used on nuclear icebreakers, nuclear submarines; The United States is implementing a program to create a nuclear engine for spacecraft, in addition, attempts were made to create a nuclear engine for aircraft.

Nuclear power remains the subject of heated debate. Supporters and opponents of nuclear power differ sharply in their assessments of its safety, reliability, and economic efficiency. There is a widespread opinion about the possible leakage of nuclear fuel from the sphere of electricity production and its use for the production of nuclear weapons.

In nature, nuclear energy is released in stars, and by man it is used mainly in nuclear weapons and nuclear energy, in particular, at nuclear power plants.

Physical foundations

Bond energy

Although the nucleus consists of nucleons, however, the mass of the nucleus is not just the sum of the masses of the nucleons. The energy that holds these nucleons together is observed as the difference in the mass of the nucleus and the masses of its constituent individual nucleons, up to a factor c 2 , which relates mass and energy by the equation E = m ⋅ c 2 . (\displaystyle E=m\cdot c^(2).) Thus, by determining the mass of an atom and the mass of its components, one can determine the average energy per nucleon holding various nuclei together.

From the graph, it can be seen that very light nuclei have less binding energy per nucleon than nuclei that are slightly heavier (on the left side of the graph). This is the reason why thermonuclear reactions (that is, the fusion of light nuclei) release energy. Conversely, very heavy nuclei on the right side of the graph have lower binding energies per nucleon than medium-mass nuclei. In this regard, the fission of heavy nuclei is also energetically favorable (that is, it occurs with the release of nuclear energy). It should also be noted that during fusion (on the left side) the mass difference is much larger than during fission (on the right side).

The energy required to completely divide the nucleus into individual nucleons is called binding energy E from the core. Specific binding energy (that is, the binding energy per nucleon, ε = E With / A, where A- the number of nucleons in the nucleus, or mass number), is not the same for different chemical elements and even for isotopes of the same chemical element. The specific binding energy of a nucleon in a nucleus varies on average from 1 MeV for light nuclei (deuterium) up to 8.6 MeV for nuclei of medium mass (with a mass number A≈ 100 ). For heavy nuclei ( A≈ 200 ), the specific binding energy of a nucleon is less than that of nuclei of average mass, by approximately 1 MeV, so that their transformation into nuclei of average weight (division into 2 parts) is accompanied by the release of energy in an amount of about 1 MeV per nucleon, or about 200 MeV per core. The transformation of light nuclei into heavier nuclei gives an even greater energy gain per nucleon. So, for example, the reaction of the combination of deuterium and tritium nuclei

accompanied by an energy release of 17.6 MeV, i.e. 3.5 MeV per nucleon.

Nuclear fission

The appearance of 2.5 neutrons per fission event allows a chain reaction to occur if at least one of these 2.5 neutrons can produce a new fission of the uranium nucleus. Normally, the emitted neutrons do not immediately fission the uranium nuclei, but must first be slowed down to thermal velocities (2200 m/s at T=300 K). Slowdown is achieved most effectively with the help of surrounding atoms of another element with a small A, such as hydrogen, carbon, etc. of a material called a moderator.

Some other nuclei can also fission by capturing slow neutrons, such as 233U or 239. However, fission by fast neutrons (high energy) of such nuclei as 238 U (it is 140 times more than 235 U) or 232 (it is 400 times more than 235 U in the earth's crust) is also possible.

The elementary theory of fission was created by Niels Bohr and J. Wheeler using the drop model of the nucleus.

Nuclear fission can also be achieved with fast alpha particles, protons, or deuterons. However, these particles, unlike neutrons, must have a high energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier of the nucleus.

Release of nuclear energy

Exothermic nuclear reactions are known to release nuclear energy.

Usually, to obtain nuclear energy, a chain nuclear fission reaction of uranium-235 or plutonium nuclei is used, less often other heavy nuclei (uranium-238, thorium-232). Nuclei are divided when a neutron hits them, and new neutrons and fission fragments are obtained. Fission neutrons and fission fragments have high kinetic energy. As a result of collisions of fragments with other atoms, this kinetic energy is quickly converted into heat.

Another way to release nuclear energy is through thermonuclear fusion. In this case, two nuclei of light elements are combined into one heavy one. In nature, such processes occur on the Sun and in other stars, being the main source of their energy.

Many atomic nuclei are unstable. Over time, some of these nuclei spontaneously transform into other nuclei, releasing energy. This phenomenon is called radioactive decay.

Applications of nuclear energy

Division

At present, of all sources of nuclear energy, the energy released during the fission of heavy nuclei has the greatest practical application. Under the conditions of a shortage of energy resources, nuclear power on fission reactors is considered the most promising in the coming decades. In nuclear power plants, nuclear energy is used to generate heat used to generate electricity and heating. Nuclear power plants have solved the problem of ships with an unlimited navigation area (

The contribution of nuclear equipment and technologies to ensuring the security of the state is usually divided into the spheres of civil (peaceful) and military applications. Such a division is, in a certain sense, conditional, since the conversion of nuclear technologies took place at all stages of their development.

The main directions of the peaceful use of nuclear energy:

• electric power industry;
• heat supply of settlements (municipal) and industrial facilities (industrial), sea water desalination;
• power plants for transport purposes used as energy sources on ships of the navy - icebreakers, lighter carriers, etc.;
• development of deposits on the Arctic continental shelf;
• power plants for power supply of artificial space systems and objects; rocket engines;
• research reactor facilities for various purposes;
• obtaining isotope products necessary for use in medicine, technology, agriculture;
• industrial application of underground nuclear explosions.
• The main directions of the military use of nuclear energy:
• development of weapons-grade nuclear materials;
• nuclear weapon;
• power plants used to pump energy into laser weapons;
• power plants for submarines and surface ships of the navy and spacecraft.

Power industry. Most of the operating power units use pressurized water reactors (PWR, VVER) or boiling water reactors (BWR, RBMK), which make it possible to achieve an efficiency of power generation of 31...33%. Fast and high-temperature (gas-cooled) reactors provide power generation efficiency of 41 ... 43%. The transition to gas-turbine energy conversion at a temperature behind the gas-cooled reactor of about 900 °C allows increasing the efficiency of power generation up to 48...49%.

In 2002, the total world electricity production of all operating nuclear power units (441 units with a total installed electrical capacity of 359 GW) was 2574 TWh (approximately 16% of electricity produced and 6% of the world fuel and energy balance).

Heat supply with the use of nuclear energy sources at present (with its limited volumes) is sufficiently prepared in technical terms, and its practical implementation is considered to be of particular importance when replacing fossil fuels with nuclear ones. The use of nuclear energy for the purpose of heat supply of settlements and industry began almost simultaneously with the production of electricity by nuclear power reactors.

There are three ways of district heating from a nuclear source:

• nuclear thermal power plant (ATES) for the combined generation of electricity and heat in one unit;
• nuclear boilers, serving only for the production of low-pressure steam and hot water (the method is implemented on a fairly small scale);
• use of heat generation capabilities of condensing nuclear power plants to generate heat.

Heat release for heating All nuclear power plants in Russia and the CIS countries, as well as many foreign ones (Bulgaria, Hungary, Germany, Canada, USA, Switzerland, etc.) produce. In accordance with the "Energy Strategy of Russia for the period up to 2020" The production of thermal energy in Russia using nuclear sources will increase from 6 million Gcal in 1990 to 15 million Gcal in 2020. An increase in the production of thermal energy is expected due to the creation of technical capabilities for the transfer of thermal energy from NPPs and operating NPPs. At the same time, the factors affecting the economic efficiency of heat supply using a nuclear energy source are the type of reactor plant and investments in it, the concentration of thermal loads of users, the length of main heating networks, as well as the comparative prices for nuclear and fossil fuels.

Use of NPP thermal energy on an industrial scale in the countries of the former USSR was started in the late 50s. at the Siberian NPP, where the heat was used to heat industrial premises and residential buildings. The high reliability and safety of heat supply systems was demonstrated at the Bilibino ATES, which has been operating in Chukotka since 1974. The last, fourth, power unit was commissioned in 1976. BiATES is the only nuclear power plant in the world designed to produce electricity and heat for industrial and domestic North in permafrost.

In Russia and abroad, projects have been developed for medium and small power reactors intended only for heating purposes - AST-500 (Russia), NHR-200 (China), SES-10 (Canada), Geyser (Switzerland, etc.), as well as for dual purpose use, i.e. for the generation of heat and electricity - VK-300, RUTA, ATES-200, ABV, Sakha-32 and KLT-40 (Russia), SMART (Republic of Korea), CAREM-25 (Argentina), MRX (Japan), ISIS (Italy) ).

The degree of elaboration of projects varies from sketch to working. For some projects, demonstration units have been built and are operating (SDR for SES-10, NHR-5 for NHR-200).

The heat of high temperature potential (up to 1000 °C and above), which is necessary for the chemical industry, hydrogen production, ferrous metallurgy, and other energy-intensive technologies, can be obtained in helium-cooled reactors. The implementation of the developed projects of such reactors and the energy technological complexes they provide is technically feasible, but with the current cost of organic fuel, preference is given to traditional technologies using this fuel.

Desalination. One of the significant and promising areas of application for small and medium power reactors can be the desalination of sea water and other highly mineralized and saline waters (mine, etc.). Large-scale production of fresh water based on the use of nuclear energy was first mastered in the USSR. In 1973, a large industrial desalination complex with a BN-350 fast reactor with a liquid metal (sodium) coolant was put into operation in Kazakhstan.

Many years of experience in the operation of this complex, numerous domestic and foreign design studies of desalination plants with various types of reactors, a detailed study of the problem within the research programs of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) make it possible to consider nuclear reactors as economically promising sources of energy supply for desalination plants, providing the possibility of producing fresh water on vast territories with decentralized energy supply, which is typical for many water-deficient regions of the world.

Transport power plants. Ship and shipboard nuclear installations were designed and built in Russia, the USA, Germany, Japan, Great Britain, France, and China. The world's first nuclear-powered civil ship, the nuclear-powered icebreaker "Lenin", was built in 1959, and then a series of nuclear-powered icebreakers ("Arktika", "Sibir", "Russia", "Soviet Union", "Taimyr", "Vaigach", "Yamal") and a container-lighter carrier "Sevmorput". The experience of civilian nuclear shipbuilding in other countries (USA - Savannah, 1962; Germany - Otto Gann, 1968; Japan - Mutsu, 1974) was incomparably less.

The total accident-free operation of nuclear power plants on Russian icebreakers and a lighter carrier exceeded 160 reactor-years; the operating time of equipment at the first nuclear power plants amounted to more than 100 ... 120 thousand hours with the preservation of working capacity. For 35 years of operation of nuclear icebreakers and 9 years of operation of the Sevmorput, they have not had a nuclear or radiation hazardous incident that would lead to a flight disruption, personnel exposure or negative environmental impact. There were no cases of occupational disease associated with work at the reactor plant.

The first nuclear submarines were built and handed over to the fleet in the United States in 1954, in Russia - in 1958. Subsequently, submarines began to be built in Great Britain, France and China (respectively 1963, 1971 and 1974). In Russia, 261 nuclear submarines were built between 1957 and 1995; the main part of the nuclear submarine has two nuclear reactors.

Under the conditions of limitation and reduction of armaments, the tasks of creating an effective technology for the disposal of decommissioned nuclear submarines, as well as the selection and economic justification of new areas for the application of effective technologies for shipboard nuclear power plants, have been put on the agenda. Leading among the latter are:

floating nuclear power plants to supply electricity and heat to remote regions that do not have a centralized power supply.

These include

• northern and eastern coasts of Russia, territories along the Siberian rivers, some island countries of the Pacific Ocean, etc.;
• floating nuclear power units for seawater desalination;
• underwater vehicles for studying the World Ocean, surveying sunken ships, developing near-bottom territories, industrial extraction of iron-manganese nodules and other minerals from the bottom of the seas and oceans.

Development of a field on the Arctic continental shelf. In the 90s. of the last century in Russia, the development of projects for the development of deposits on the Arctic continental shelf began. The total (recoverable) hydrocarbon reserves in the Arctic Ocean are estimated at 100 billion tons of fuel equivalent. Studies by Russian design organizations have shown the possibility of using nuclear energy to solve a wide range of problems of energy supply for the offshore oil and gas technological cycle on the Arctic shelf. Projects of nuclear power supply for hydrocarbon production on platforms in the Barents Sea, gas transportation through underwater gas pipelines over long distances, large-capacity submarine shuttle tankers (projects of the nuclear submarine icebreaking tanker Design Bureau "Malakhit", St. Petersburg; nuclear submarine tanker for transporting liquid fuel from Russia to Japan, KB "Lazurit", Nizhny Novgorod).

As part of the project for the development of the giant Shtokman gas condensate field, an assessment was made and the possibility of creating a nuclear submarine station for pumping natural gas through long underwater gas pipelines at great depths was assessed and shown. The designs for the new facilities draw on technical solutions from Russia's vast experience in designing and operating nuclear power plants with pressurized water reactors for the Navy and nuclear-powered icebreakers.

Nuclear power plants on space vehicles can be used as onboard power sources and/or engines and have undoubted advantages for space rocket ships during long-range interplanetary flights, when chemical sources and/or solar radiation flux cannot provide the necessary power supply for the expedition.

In Russia, one of the main directions in the development of space nuclear power plants is the use of reactors with thermionic converters built into the core - effective energy sources for delivering spacecraft to geostationary and other energy-intensive orbits using an electric propulsion system (EPP).

The first flight tests of the space nuclear power plant "Buk" with a power of 3 kW (el.) with thermionic converters, developed since 1956, took place in October 1970 (satellite "Cosmos-367"). Until 1988, when the Kosmos-1932 satellite was launched, 32 Buk nuclear power plants were sent into space.

Since 1958, the development of the thermionic nuclear power plant "Topaz" with a power of 5 ... 7 kW (el.) with multi-element power generating channels (EGC) included carrying out (starting from 1970) life tests at the power of seven samples of nuclear power plants. The world's first space launch of a thermionic nuclear power plant took place on February 2, 1987, as part of the Plasma-A experimental spacecraft (Cosmos-1818 satellite, 810/970 km orbit). The nuclear power plant operated offline for 142 days, generating over 7 kW of electricity. The second launch of the nuclear power plant "Topaz" was carried out on July 10, 1987 (satellite Kosmos-1867, orbit at a height of 797/813 km). This installation worked in space for 342 days, generating more than 50,000 kWh of electricity.

A significant amount of research, design and engineering development, pre-reactor and reactor tests has been carried out to solve the problem of creating a direct-acting nuclear rocket engine (NRE), in which hydrogen heated in the core to a temperature of 2500 ... 2800 K expands in the nozzle apparatus , providing a specific impulse of about 850 ... 900 s. Ground tests of prototype reactors confirmed the technical feasibility of creating a nuclear rocket engine with a thrust of several tens (hundreds) of tons.

One of the most preferred schemes for the use of nuclear reactors as part of spacecraft is their use for two purposes: at the stage of launching spacecraft from low Earth orbit into an operating orbit, usually geostationary, for power supply of the propulsion electric propulsion propulsion system and at the subsequent stage of intended use - for power supply of the onboard and functional equipment of space vehicles in the final orbit.

As an unconventional approach to the creation of a nuclear power plant designed to operate in two modes with significantly different electrical power of 100 ... 150 kW and 20 ... 30 kW with a service life of up to 15-20 years, Energia Rocket and Space Corporation proposes a new the principle of building a nuclear power plant. For this option, it is provided for the separation of the functions of converting thermal energy into electrical energy in the transport mode and the mode of intended use of the spacecraft between two corresponding types of converters: a thermionic converter built into the reactor core, which is used to power the EPS (transport mode) and has a short resource of up to 1, 5 years, and located outside the active zone (for long-term power supply of the spacecraft equipment). The energy required for operation (in the latter case) is supplied by a coolant heated in the reactor core.

The prototype of the thermoelectric generator of the dual-mode nuclear power plant under consideration can be a thermoelectric generator developed in the USA for the SP-100 installation (a nuclear power plant based on a lithium-cooled fast reactor, in which a silicon-germanium thermoelectric converter was planned as the main power generator).

Research reactor facilities. According to the IAEA, as of August 2000, 288 research reactors are in operation in 60 countries of the world, their total thermal power is 3205 MW (Fig. B.2.1). The number of operating research reactors in the main countries of the world: Russia - 63, USA - 55, France - 14, Germany - 14, Japan - 20, Canada - 9, China - 9, Great Britain - 3.324 research reactors are stopped and decommissioned for reasons of depletion resource of the main technological equipment or completion of planned research programs. Of these, 21 reactors have designs and are being decommissioned.

Rice. B.2.1. Number of research reactors in the world and their total thermal power

Obtaining isotope products. Radioactive and stable nuclides are used as part of various devices and installations, as well as labeled compounds for scientific research, technical and medical diagnostics, treatment and study of technological processes (Tables B.2.1 and B.2.2).

Radionuclides are produced by irradiating special target materials in nuclear reactors, as well as in high-current charged particle accelerators - cyclotrons and electron accelerators (Tables B.2.3, B.2.4).

Some radionuclides are isolated from irradiated nuclear fuel as fission products. A number of short-lived radionuclides, intended mainly for medical purposes, are obtained directly in clinics using the so-called short-lived nuclide generators, which are genetically linked systems of two nuclides: long-lived (maternal) and short-lived (daughter), which can be isolated as it accumulates .

Industrial applications of underground nuclear explosions(PYaV) has been studied since the late 1950s. mainly in the USSR and the USA. Subsequently, this activity was regulated by such international agreements as the Treaty on the Limitation of Underground Tests of Nuclear Weapons (1974); treaty "On underground nuclear explosions for peaceful purposes" (1976), as well as the Protocol to the last treaty (1990). In accordance with these agreements, the power of each industrial nuclear explosion should not exceed 150 kt. The total capacity of all conducted "peaceful" UNEs does not exceed 3...4 Mt.

In 1957, at the National Livermore Laboratory. Lawrence (USA), on the initiative of E. Teller and G. Seaborg, an experimental program "Ploughshare" ("Ploughshare") was developed, within the framework of which, in the period up to 1973, when this program was terminated for technical and environmental reasons, 27 PYAV. Possible areas of practical application of PYaV were considered: the development of oil shale in pieces. Colorado, the deepening of the Panama Canal, the construction of harbors in Alaska and northwestern Australia, the construction of a canal across the Kra Isthmus in Thailand, etc.

Out of 27 UNEs outside the polygon, in pcs. Nevada was held 4 UNE. Of these, the most successful was the explosion in 1967 with the aim of intensifying gas production at the field in pcs. New Mexico, which contributed to a 7-fold increase in pressure in the well. 5 UNEs were also successful at the test site in pcs. Nevada, carried out for excavation purposes.

The use of industrial UNEs in the USSR was much more widespread. Starting from January 15, 1965, when an experiment was successfully carried out at the Grachevskoye oil field in Bashkiria to stimulate the flow of oil and gas at commercial wells with the help of UNEs, up to 1987, 115 UNEs were conducted (of which 81 were on the territory of Russia).

They were used for deep seismic sounding of the earth's crust and mantle (39); intensification of oil (20) and gas (1); construction of underground reservoirs for hydrocarbons (36); jamming of emergency gas fountains at the fields (5); excavation of soil along the canal route in connection with the implementation of the project to transfer part of the flow of the northern rivers of the European part of Russia to the south (1 triple UNE); creation of dams (2) and reservoirs (9); crushing of ore deposits (3); burial of biologically hazardous industrial waste (2); prevention of gas emissions in a coal mine (1).

When it became clear that hydrocarbon sources of raw materials, such as oil, gas, coal, are being exhausted. This means that we must look for new forms of energy. Now the question of the possibility of catastrophic climate change associated with the fact that conventional thermal power plants create a greenhouse gas layer has become very serious. And as a result, the Earth is experiencing global warming. It's absolutely certain. We must look for new types of energy that do not lead to this.

Kuvshinov Vyacheslav Ivanovich:
The structure of the atom and the structure of the atom (what it has inside the nucleus) became known only in the last century. When the Second World War was going on, it became clear that colossal energy could be extracted from the nucleus of an atom. Naturally, a variant was thought out of how this could be used from the point of view of weapons, from the point of view of the atomic bomb.
And only in the 50s, the question of the peaceful use of atomic energy arose, the concept of "peaceful atom" arose.

The first nuclear power plant in the Soviet Union was built in Obninsk. It is curious that Academician Andrei Kapitonovich Krasin was the director of the first Nuclear Power Plant, who, by the way, later became the director of the Sosny Institute for Energy and Nuclear Research.

Kuvshinov Vyacheslav Ivanovich:
Take the protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus. If they sit inside the nucleus, they are closely connected by nuclear forces. Why is it tight? Because, for example, two protons - have the same electric charge, they must repel enormously, however, they are contracted. Thus, there are nuclear forces inside the nucleus. And it turns out that part of the mass of protons and neutrons is converted into energy. And there is such a famous formula, which is now even written on T-shirts E = Mc2. E is energy, M is the mass of particles, WITH squared is the speed of light.
It turns out that there is also a special energy that is associated with the mass of the body. And if there is some stored energy in the nucleus, if the nucleus is split, then this energy is released in the form of the energy of fragments. And it is precisely its quantity (E) that is equal to (M) per (square of the speed of light). Here, as a result of the fission of one nucleus, you have some energy in the form of the energy of fragments.
The interesting thing here is that when a large amount of, for example, uranium fuel fission occurs, a nuclear chain reaction occurs. This means that the nuclei divide almost simultaneously. This releases an enormous amount of energy. For example, 1.5 kg of uranium fuel can replace 1.5 wagons of coal.

What role does the speed of light play in this universal formula?

Kuvshinov Vyacheslav Ivanovich:
Einstein built his formulas for changing the speed of light from one coordinate system to another, from which it follows that the speed of light is constant, and all other speeds of other bodies and objects change. It is curious that from Einstein's formula of relativity it turns out that time travel is possible! The so-called "twin paradox" follows from it. It lies in the fact that one of the twins, located in a rocket accelerated to a speed close to the speed of light, will grow old less than his brother, who remains on Earth.

Kuvshinov Vyacheslav Ivanovich, Professor, General Director of the Joint Institute for Energy and Nuclear Research Sosny:
According to the IAEA, only the inclusion of nuclear energy gives the lowest cost of electricity. Belarusians will see this advantage in their "fat".

According to IAEA studies, by 2020 a hole will appear in the fuel and energy balance of Belarus, as they say. Experts say that it will be possible to close the gap in energy consumption only with the help of an operating nuclear power plant.

According to the IAEA, there are 441 power units operating in the world. There are 5 nuclear power plants around Belarus. Rivne NPP operates in neighboring Ukraine, Smolensk NPP, Leningrad NPP in Russia, and Baltic NPP is under construction.

Nikolai Grusha, Director of the Department of Nuclear Energy of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Belarus:
The main task of building a nuclear power plant, and in general, the main task of energy policy in the Republic of Belarus is to reduce dependence on natural gas supplies.
With the commissioning of a nuclear power plant with a capacity of more than 2 million kilowatts, firstly, about 27-29% of all electricity produced at nuclear power plants will be generated. This will replace approximately 5 billion cubic meters of natural gas. That is almost a quarter of what we consume today.