Description by geography. Geographic terms and concepts

Analysis topographic maps is carried out with the aim of studying the study area, its features, patterns of placement, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to correctly select a map of a certain scale, depending on the direction of the intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation on the ground, as bases for drawing up hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for scientific analysis of natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The choice of maps is accompanied by an assessment of the degree of their suitability for specific work in terms of accuracy and details of the information that is supposed to be obtained with the help of maps. It should be borne in mind that enlarging the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing the visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of information. The time of issue of maps determines their compliance with the current state of the territory. The dynamics of geographic phenomena is revealed by comparing maps of different times for the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

Visual way based on the visual perception of the image of the area, the comparison of graphically shown elements of the area in shape, size, structure, etc. It presupposes qualitative characteristic objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye estimate of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists in the study of constructions made on the maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using the techniques of graphical analysis, patterns of spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Grapho-analytical analysis subdivided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist in measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques allow you to determine the average height, thickness, power of the phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, tortuosity of lines, contours and etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, the relationship between them, the degree of influence of various factors allow us to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis... Using the methods of mathematical modeling, spatial mathematical models of the terrain are created.

Geographical description of the area is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on a comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, a scale of laying, etc. The basic principle of description is from general to specific. The description is built according to the following scheme:

1) card data(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographic and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristic(type of relief, landforms and the area and length they occupy, marks of absolute and relative heights, main watersheds, the shape and steepness of slopes, the presence of ravines, precipices, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, barrows, etc.);

4) hydrographic network- names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of river flow, slope, nature of the banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

5) vegetation cover and soils- type, composition of rocks, occupied area, nature of placement. If there are woodlands - their characteristics, the width of the glades, the presence of clearings;

6) settlements- name, type, population size, administrative significance, structure and layout, prevailing buildings (fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant), industrial facilities;

7) ways of communication- railways and highways. For railways - the number of tracks, the type of traction, the name of stations, stations. For highways and other roads - coverage and width.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ERROR THEORY

MEASUREMENTS

Understanding measurements

Measurement - this is the process of comparing the measured value with the value taken as a comparison unit, as a result of which a named number is obtained, called measurement result.

Distinguish: straight, or immediate and indirect measurements.

Immediate such measurements are called when the determined values ​​are obtained directly from measurements, as a result of direct comparison with a unit of measurement. Examples of direct measurements - determination of distances with a measuring tape, measurement of an angle with a theodolite.

Indirect are those measurements in which the determined quantities are obtained as functions of the directly measured quantities. The indirect method involves calculating the value of the desired quantity. For example, the elevation in trigonometric leveling is a function of the distance and slope measured directly on the ground.

The measurement results are divided into equal and unequal.

Equal refers to the results of measuring homogeneous quantities obtained from repeated measurements under similar conditions (by one observer with the same device, by the same method and under the same environmental conditions).

If even one of the listed conditions is violated, the measurement results are referred to unequal.

In the mathematical processing of the results of topographic and geodetic measurements, the concepts of necessary and excessive the number of measurements. In the general case, to solve any topographic problem, it is necessary to measure a certain minimum number of quantities that provide a solution to the problem. These measurements are called the number of required measurements t. Difference k when subtracting the number of required measurements t of all measured quantities n are called the number of excess quantities k = n - t. Redundant measurements of the quantity allow you to detect errors in the results of measurements and calculations and increase the accuracy of the determined quantities.

Russia is the largest country in the world in terms of area (17075.4 thousand km 2), a democratic federal state with a republican form of government.

The first mentions of this country date back to about the 10th century, in ancient Russian monuments of the 10th – 15th centuries. these lands were called "Rus", "Russian land". In the 14th century. they began to be called the Moscow principality, in the 15th century. - Moscow state or Muscovy, from the 16th century. - Russia.

In 1721 the state was officially named the Russian Empire.

Until 1917, Russia was understood as the totality of the territories of the Russian Empire inhabited by both Russians and other peoples. After 1917, in connection with the establishment of Soviet power, the concept of "Soviet Russia" appeared, which could be called both Russia itself (and the RSFSR formed on its lands), and the entire Soviet Union formed in 1922.

After 1991 and the collapse of the USSR, "Russia" means The Russian Federation(proclaimed June 12, 1990).

Russian Federation. Moscow the capital. Population: 143.78 million (2004). The population density is 8.6 people per 1 sq. km. Urban population - 73%, rural - 27%. Area: 17,075.4 thousand sq. km. Highest point: 5642 m above sea level (Elbrus). Lowest point: 27 m below sea level (Caspian Sea). National language - Russian. Main religion: Orthodox Christianity. Administrative divisions: 21 autonomous republics, 49 regions, 6 territories, 10 autonomous districts, 1 autonomous region, the cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Monetary unit: 1 ruble = 100 kopecks.

Territory.

The Russian Federation is located in eastern Europe and northern Asia. The northernmost point on the mainland is Cape Chelyuskin (Taimyr Peninsula), on the islands - the north of Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago; the southernmost - in Dagestan, on the border with Azerbaijan; western - on the Baltic Spit in the Kaliningrad Bay; eastern - on about. Ratmanov in the Bering Strait.

The length of land borders is 22,125.3 km, they divide Russia in the north-west with Norway, Finland, in the west - with Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus. The southwestern border is with Ukraine, the southern border is with Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

The territory of Russia occupies 11 time zones.

Nature.

Most of Russia is located in a stable area of ​​the upper solid part of the earth's crust (lithosphere) of the Eurasian continent with a low-contrast, flat, plateau relief. In terms of the height and nature of the relief in the continental part of the territory of Russia, 6 large regions are distinguished:

hilly-flat European part;

low-plain Western Siberia;

plateau-plateau Central Siberia;

mountains of southern Siberia;

mountains and plains of the North-East;

mountains and plains of the Far East.

The mountain systems of the Urals and the Caucasus, which are not part of them, delimit the European part and Western Siberia. In the South Urals there is one of the largest (over 2 km) natural monuments, the karst Kapova cave, where in 1959 the oldest wall paintings of a mammoth, horse, and rhinoceros were discovered for the Paleolithic.

In the Lateral Ridge of the Greater Caucasus is located highest point Russia and Europe, Mount Elbrus, a two-peaked cone of an extinct volcano (the height of the western peak is 5642 m, the eastern one is 5621) with 50 glaciers.

Elbrus region with Big and Small Azau, Irik, Terskol is one of the largest centers of mountaineering and skiing in Russia.

In the Sayan Mountains, in the Southern Urals, there are about 100 unique granite cliffs of bizarre shapes, incl. in the Stolby reserve in the Krasnoyarsk Territory - the highest (750 m.)

Water resources.

The shores of Russia are washed by 12 seas belonging to the basins of 3 oceans - the Atlantic (Baltic, Black, Azov Seas), the Arctic (Barents, White, Kara, Laptev Sea, East Siberian, Chukchi), Pacific (Beringovo, Okhotsk, Japanese) and drainless The Caspian Sea. The length of Russia's maritime borders is 38,807.5 km. It also has maritime borders with the United States and Japan.

The White Sea was mastered by the Russians as early as the 11th century. The oldest Russian settlement is Kholmogory, where the largest Russian scientist was born M. V. Lomonosov. From the end. 15 to early. 18th century the sea was the most important sea route connecting Russia with Western Europe. In the beginning. 18th century its transport role diminished due to Russia's accession to the Baltic. Since the 20s of the 20th century. a significant portion of Russia's maritime traffic is via Murmansk, an ice-free port in the Barents Sea. A transport artery runs along the coast of the Arctic seas of Russia, connecting European and Far Eastern ports from Novaya Zemlya to the Bering Strait. The seas of the Pacific Ocean - Bering, Okhotsk and Japanese - stretch along the Asian continent. The beginning of the development of this region by Russia was laid in the middle. 17th century expeditions I. Moskvitin and S. Dezhnev. Russia secured its access to the Baltic by winning the Northern War at the beginning of the 18th century by annexing the coast with the ports of Revel (Tallinn), Narva, Riga, and Vyborg to its territory. From the first third of the 18th century. Petersburg became the main foreign trade port, and Kronstadt was the main naval base.

The Black and Azov seas are inland, interconnected by the Kerch Strait, and the Bosporus and Dardanelles straits with the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean... The development of this water area by Russia refers to the end of the 17th - beginning of the 20th century. 18th century

The world's largest closed body of water is the Caspian Sea ("sea-lake"). The largest Russian river, the Volga, flows into the Caspian. The largest in Europe and the fifth longest in the world, it is connected by canals to the Baltic, White, Azov and Black Seas, as well as to the Moskva River, the main river of the Russian capital.

In terms of water flow resources, Russia ranks second in the world after Brazil with its most abundant Amazon River. In terms of per capita, the provision of resources for underground runoff, soil moisture, and full river runoff in Russia is 4 times the world average.

St. 2.5 million rivers. The most abundant of them is the Yenisei (according to this indicator, Russia ranks fifth in the world). Most of the Russian rivers carry their waters to the Arctic and Pacific oceans.

Russia is a lakes region, although there are few large lakes. The total number of Russian lakes exceeds 2.7 million, their area (excluding the Caspian Sea) is more than 400 thousand square meters. km. In the Asian part of Russia, in the south of Eastern Siberia, in a tectonic depression in a reef system surrounded by mountain ranges, there is Lake Baikal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Lake Baikal is in first place in the world in terms of depth (1620 m) and volume of fresh water (23 thousand square kilometers, which is 1/5 of the world's fresh water reserves). The area of ​​the lake is 31.5 thousand square meters. km, maximum length - 636 km, width - 48 km. The water level is raised by the dam of the Irkutsk hydroelectric power station by 0.8 m. There are 27 islands on the lake, 336 rivers flow into it and one river, the Angara, flows out. The Bratsk reservoir on the Angara River, formed in 1967 by the dam of the hydroelectric power station of the same name (area 5470 sq. Km., Volume 169.3 sq. Km.) Is used for shipping and water supply.

In the northwest of Russia lies the largest of the European freshwater lakes, Ladoga (area - 17.7 thousand square kilometers, length 219 km, width 83 km, depth 230 m), it has 660 islands; 35 rivers flow into it, the Neva River flows out, on which at the beginning of the 18th century. St. Petersburg, which was the capital of Russia for more than two centuries, was erected. In the 9-12 centuries. the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (from the Baltic to the Black Sea) passed through Ladoga; from ser. 20th century Lake Ladoga is part of the Volga-Baltic and White Sea-Baltic waterways. (The Volga-Baltic waterway is the longest in Russia, about 1100 km - built in the early 19th century, reconstructed in 1964). During the Great Patriotic War on the ice of Lake Ladoga, the "Road of Life" was laid, saving the inhabitants of Leningrad besieged by the Nazis from hunger.

The structure of water use is dominated by production needs. The main water problem in Russia is the pollution of rivers and reservoirs with waste from economic activities, which is why large water bodies of the country do not meet European regulatory requirements. According to the Water Legislation, 76% of fresh water is used for household and drinking water supply. groundwater, and 24% goes to the needs of industry and irrigation by special permission of environmental authorities. However, only 30% of cities and towns in Russia are fully provided with underground drinking water. The water supply of Moscow, St. Petersburg and a number of other large cities is based on surface waters unprotected from pollution.

In addition to industrial waters, the waters of Russia are also used for medical and resort needs. Mineral underground waters (carbonic, rhodonic, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, siliceous) feed over 300 deposits, including such well-known deposits as Essentuki, Pyatigorsk, Zheleznovodsk, Kislovodsk ( North Caucasus), Marzipal waters (Karelia), Matsesta (Black Sea coast of the Caucasus), Belokurikha (in Altai).

Climate. Russia is a country with a relatively cold climate, winter temperatures are negative. It is located in four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic (seas of the Arctic Ocean, arctic islands, northern mainland), temperate (most of the territory) and subtropical (a small area of ​​the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus). Almost everywhere the climate is continental, the degree of continentality increases in the direction from west to east as the influence of the Atlantic Ocean is weakening. In the same direction, cyclones bring the main precipitation. In winter, the continental air is quite cold.

According to climatic indicators, Russia is divided into a number of zones.

1) The Russian Arctic with a long sunny day (when the sun does not sink below the horizon from early April to mid-September) and an equally long polar night (when the sun does not rise above the horizon from mid-October to late February).

2) The European part of Russia with a tangible influence of the Atlantic - there is a transformation of marine temperate humid air into dry continental air, and the climate itself is rapidly changing from west to east.

3) West Siberian Plain with Altai and Sayan Mountains, where the continentality of the climate increases from north to south.

4) Eastern Siberia with a pronounced continental climate - cold winters, warm summers;

5) the Far East with a typical monsoon climate.

In winter, an area of ​​high atmospheric pressure - the Asian anticyclone - regularly appears over Siberia, Central and Central Asia. The coldest month of the year in Russia is January, on the shores of the seas - February. The lowest temperatures are in Eastern Siberia (the cold pole of Eurasia is located there, the average monthly temperature in January is minus 50 ° C). The absolute minimum (-68 ° С) was observed in Verkhoyansk in 1892, where the Pole of Cold obelisk was installed. An increase in temperatures is observed from February to July-August, from August - a cold snap. Large damage to Russian agriculture is caused by spring and autumn frosts, which is why almost the entire territory of the country belongs to the zone of risky farming.

The current general warming of the climate in Russia has been noted since the 70s of the 20th century. and is unprecedented over the past 1000 years (0.9 ° C over 100 years). Major warming intervals: 1910–1945, 1970s and 1990s. 1998 is the warmest year of the 20th century. The most intense rise in temperature was observed in the Baikal and Transbaikal regions, the reasons for it are interpreted hypothetically.

On the total area of ​​Russia in 17.1 million km 2, the soil cover is 14.5 million km 2 (the rest is accounted for by water bodies, rock outcrops, stony placers, disturbed and weedy lands). The soil cover is diverse: 90 natural soil types are supplemented by approximately the same number of anthropogenic transformation types with their characteristic communities of plants, animals and microorganisms. The standard of fertility (with a 16% humus-humus content) in the International Chamber of Weights and Measures is a cube of black soil carved in the feather-grass steppe near Voronezh and sent by the soil scientist V.V.Dokuchaev in 1900 to the World Exhibition in Paris. Russia accounts for about 9% of the world's arable land, over 20% of the world's forested area. Tundra and swampy areas play an important economic role. However, the use of soil cover, vast areas, highly fertile chernozems is difficult: 80% of the agricultural massif of Russia lies in an area with low heat supply, 8% is occupied by swamps that require drainage, 7% are sands and stony soils.

The total area of ​​the village - x. lands of the country - 2.21 million km 2. Land suitable for plowing is vast, but their share in the total area is lower than in other countries. Russian chernozems, intensively exploited for centuries, worsened their properties and now reduced productivity (the humus balance was disturbed, the water regime worsened). Plowed up in the last decades of the 20th century. exceeded the environmentally permissible norms and reached 70%, which led to the general degradation of chernozem. Forest gray, dark chestnut soils are plowed up by 40%, sod-podzolic and meadow-steppe soils - from 10 to 15%. The area of ​​arable land by the 1980s was about 1.34 million square meters. km.

Large arable land on Tue. floor. 20th century supported by the use of low-fertile land in the outskirts, but this did not save it from a reduction of 100 thousand square meters. km. From the arable lands used, marginal ones were excluded, which made it possible to improve the quality of sowing, especially on plots given for personal use. Their areas are growing: from 1.6% of the total land area (1998) to 6.1% (2002). The area of ​​perennial plantings and non-sown arable land continues to grow: from 250 thousand km 2 (1996) to 372 thousand square kilometers. km (2002).

But ecologists are sounding the alarm about soil erosion: in the 1990s, the area of ​​erosional soils doubled, in an unsatisfactory state - more than 7 thousand km. irrigated land. Soil productivity decreases, soil pollution causes deterioration in the quality of water, air, food. In some areas of the Belgorod region. soils washed away to chalk deposits; after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (1986), the radioactive contamination of a number of nearby areas reached the scale of a disaster.

The soils used as forage lands occupy over 900 thousand km 2. The processes of their degradation are obvious in places of unsystematic grazing. The shallow, acidic, swampy soils of the tundra and taiga, used for reindeer pastures, are low-resistant to mechanical stress (oil production, industrial enterprises). Their annual reduction reaches 20 thousand square meters. km.

About 70% of the area with a soil cover is occupied by forests, the main part of which is taiga. State nature reserves occupy 335 thousand square meters. km, National parks- 70 thousand sq. km. The most surprising in terms of the duration of operation (over 100 years) and scientific significance is the man-made Stony Steppe in the southeast of the Voronezh Region. (founded in 1892 by the expedition of V.V.Dokuchaev in the barren eroded steppe as a model of an ideal agricultural landscape).

Vegetable world.

The vegetation cover of the Russian Federation includes zones of arctic polar deserts, tundras, boreal (with significant temperature fluctuations) taiga forests, broad-leaved forests, steppes, and deserts. Huge areas are occupied by mountains (Siberia, Far East) with different altitudinal zonality vegetation. The coasts of rivers, lakes and seas have a special vegetation. Lichens and mosses, hiding the tiny flowers of the Arctic polar deserts in the north, are strikingly different from the three - four-tiered forests in the taiga, and in the south - from the subtropical vegetation of the Caucasus.

Russia's forest resources account for 22% of the world's forest area and 1/4 of the world's timber reserves. The main forest-forming species and timber reserves (decreasing from the size of the occupied areas): larch, Scots pine, downy and weeping birch (drooping), spruce, silver cedar pine. Coniferous and deciduous forests, streltsy steppes, floodplain meadows, Kuban floodplains have long been exposed to human impact; deforestation and fires have reduced their areas, some forest and steppe areas have been turned into land and pastures.

Animal world.

The fauna of Russia is the fauna of the temperate and cold zones of the Northern Hemisphere. The distribution of animals, their species diversity, abundance and ecological relations are determined by latitudinal zoning. The structure of the fauna reflects its complex history, a variety of sources and ways of formation.

Species diversity implies the division into fauna into a number of zones:

representatives of the Arctic Ocean and high-latitude islands (polar bear, seagull, narwhal, beluga whale),

tundra zone (deer, loons, arctic fox, etc.),

inhabitants of the highlands (bighorn sheep, leopards, Caucasian tur),

taiga zone (brown bear, elk, wolverine, sable, lynx).

forests of the European part of Russia (European bison, European roe deer, mink, marten)

steppes and semi-deserts (saiga, manul, steppe gopher, marmot, polecat)

the animal world of the Far East (tiger, black bear, Bengal cat, raccoon dog, sika deer).

The inhabitants of the Far Eastern seas and their coasts (fur seal, cormorant, sea otter, whale, sperm whale, etc.), as well as the basins of the southern seas (seal, shark, Russian sturgeon, stellate sturgeon, Volga pike perch, etc.) are diverse.

Russia occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of resources of wild animals (commercial fish, mammals, game animals and birds, aquatic invertebrates). The exterminating nature of fisheries and the disappearance of natural habitats are the reasons for the decline in a number of species of wild animals and resources of the animal world. For more than 25 years in Russia, measures have been taken to restore the number of fauna, including the removal from economic use of some species of animals and their inclusion in the Red Book.

This section contains examples standard plans, which are used by students from grades 6 to 11 when compiling a description of certain geographical objects, not only in geography lessons, but also when doing homework.

Plan for describing the geographic location of the mainland

1. The location of the continent relative to the equator, the tropics (polar circles) and the prime meridian.
2. The extreme points of the continent, their coordinates and the length of the continent in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.
3. In what climatic zones is the mainland located?
4. Oceans and seas washing the mainland.
5. Location of the mainland relative to other continents.

Terrain relief description plan

1. The general nature of the surface. How to explain it?

2. The position of different landforms in the study area.

3. Prevailing and highest elevation.

Climate description plan

1. In what climatic zone and in what region is the territory located?

2. Average temperatures in July and January. The direction and reasons for their change.

3. Prevailing winds (according to seasons).

4. Annual amount of precipitation and their regime. The reasons for the differences in the amount of precipitation across the territory.

Characteristics of the climate diagram

1. Description of the annual temperature variation. Average temperature in January, July, annual amplitude.

2. Annual amount of precipitation, their seasonal regime.

3. Conclusion about the type of climate.

River description plan

1. Geographic location of the river.

2. Where does it originate, where does it flow?

3. River length, basin area, large tributaries.

5. Dependence of the nature of the current on the relief. Fall, slope of the river.

6. Sources of food for the river.

7. The regime of the river, its dependence on the climate.

8. Human use of the river.

Natural area description plan

1. Geographic location of the zone.

2. Climatic conditions.

3. Internal waters.

4. Soils.

5. Vegetation.

6. Animal world.

Country (area) profile plan

1. EGP of the country (regions).

2. Economic assessment of natural conditions and resources.

3. Population and labor resources. Possibilities of their use.

4. Historical preconditions for the development of the economy.

5. Specialization of the farm; the main features of its placement.

6. The main features of the geography of transport.

7. The relationship of industries and territories within the region, country, city.

8. General conclusion: development prospects.

Country (district) EGP characterization plan

1. The position of the object on the territory of the mainland (state).

2. Position in relation to neighboring countries, regions.

3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw materials, industrial and agricultural areas.

4. Position in relation to the main transport routes.

5. Location in relation to the main sales areas.

6. Change in EGP over time.

7. Conclusion about the possibility of the influence of EGP on the development of the economy of the country (region).

Country Population Characterization Plan

1. Number, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.

2. Age and sex composition, labor force availability.

3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.

4. Social-class composition of the population.

5. The main features of the distribution of the population. Impact of migrations on this placement.

6. Level, rates and forms of urbanization. Main cities and urban agglomerations.

7. Rural settlement.

8. Conclusion: Prospects for the growth of population and labor resources.

Plan of characteristics of the industry of the World economy

1. The importance of the industry, its sectoral composition, the impact of scientific and technological revolution on its development.

2. Raw materials and fuel resources of the industry, their placement.

3. The size of production with distribution by major geographic regions.

4. Major producing countries.

5. Factors that determined the location of the industry in these areas.

6. Environmental and ecological problems of the industry.

7. Main countries of export and import of products. The most important cargo flows.

8. Conclusion: prospects for the development and placement of the industry. 

Multidisciplinary- studies various phenomena (from geology to ideology).

Poly-scale- we can talk about phenomena of various scales. Geography is characterized by a "game of scales" - consideration at different levels.

Having your own language of geography. Cartographic language - The map language has the following advantages:

Expressiveness

Visibility

Imagery

Large information capacity

Geography cannot exist without a map.

"Any geographical research begins with a map and ends with a map."

(N.N.Baransky)

Three mistakes in the concept of geography:

1. School subject only
2. The object of study is nature
3. Is descriptive only

Geography has many components, a ramified science. Geography not only describes and establishes patterns, but also strives to improve people's lives.

Goals and objectives of geography

The purpose of geographical science: the formation of a scientific picture of the world.

1. Study of the structure of the geographic envelope. Study of the interaction between its parts.

2. Revealing the features of the spread of various phenomena on the surface of the Earth.

3. Study of territorial differences in different phenomena.

4. Study of the interaction of territorial objects. Study of the interaction of various objects and phenomena on the surface of the Earth

5. Diagnosing problems. An applied task aimed at improving people's lives

6. Development of proposals for solving these problems

7. Geographic forecasting

8. Particular task - drawing up various maps

Questions of methodology of geography

Geography object

This is what is being studied, is in the center, some system capable of falling apart. The concept is collective. Ecumene or geographic envelope, the surface of the Earth. Oikumena is a well-known part of the land. Each separate part of the geographic envelope is also an object. The combination of these objects within one layer is a system.

Geography is the science of territorial complexes and territorial systems.

2.1.1 Two approaches to the study of the geographic envelope:

Component or industry-specific. Consideration of a specific layer of the earth's surface (only the lithosphere or hydrosphere, etc.)

Regional. Consideration of a certain part of the earth's surface (for example: Eurasia) and the study of all layers in this area.

*DRAWING*

It follows from this that there are component geography and regional geography.

As part of separate layers, there is a group of separate objects - territorial / geographic systems. System (Greek) / Complex (Latin) - a whole fortune from parts. System is the interaction of homogeneous objects. Complex is the interaction of different objects. Objects can vary in size, from very large to very small (geographic feature levels).

Plan for describing the geographic location of the mainland

1. Determine the geographical position of the continent: a) position in relation to the equator and zero meridian; b) latitude and longitude of extreme points; c) position relative to other continents, oceans, straits, bays.

2. Determine the prevailing landforms, find out in which part of the continent they are located. We find the highest and lowest points and amplitude of heights on the mainland

3. Determine the position in climatic zones and general features of the climate

4. We name and find large rivers and lakes on the physical map. We determine in which parts of the continent and in which direction the rivers flow, to which ocean basin they belong. Determine which landforms the lakes are confined to.

5. Determine the set and features of the location of natural areas.

6. We characterize the main natural resources of the mainland

7. We list the largest countries of the mainland.

8. What peoples inhabit the mainland, in what parts of the density of the mainland is the highest.

9. Features of the economic activity of the mainland.

Ocean description plan

1. The name of the ocean and its size.

2. The position of the ocean relative to the equator and prime meridian, polar circles, tropics.

3. Between which continents is the ocean.

4. Neighborhood with other oceans.

5. Largest seas and bays.

6. Average and maximum ocean depth.

7. The most important warm and cold currents.

8. In what climatic zones is the ocean.

9. Human use of the ocean, the most important transport routes.

10. Conclusion about the features of the geographic location of the ocean.

Trip description plan

1. Tell us what the purpose of your trip is.
2. Plan your travel route. Show the settlements through which your journey took place. Indicate its duration.
3. What type of transport did you use to travel
4. Use the scale to calculate the approximate distance and direction of your trip.
5. Find out what landforms your path passed through.
6. Indicate through which objects of the hydrosphere your path passed (rivers, lakes, seas, oceans).
7. Describe the weather at the time of your trip.
8. Describe the animal and vegetable world territory on which the journey took place.

River description plan

1. The name of the river and its length
2. On which continent is the river and in which part of it
3. Source of the river
4. Estuary
5. In which direction does the river flow
6. To the basin, which ocean does the river belong to
7. Tributaries
8. The nature of the flow of the river
9. River feeding
10. River mode
11. River slope
12. Fall of the river

Country EGP Description Outline

1. Position in relation to neighboring countries.

2. Position in relation to the main land and sea transport routes.

3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw material bases, industrial and agricultural regions.

4. Location in relation to the main marketing areas.

5. Change in EGP over time.

6. General conclusion about the influence of EGP on the development and location of the country's economy.

Plan for describing the geographic location of the country

1. What maps should be used when describing a country?
2. In which part of the mainland is the country located? What is the name of its capital?
3. Features of the relief (general nature of the surface, the main forms of relief and the distribution of heights). Mineral resources of the country.
4. Climatic conditions in different parts of the country (climatic zones, average temperatures in July and January, annual precipitation). Differences by territory and seasons.
5. Large rivers and lakes.
6. Natural areas and their main features.
7. Peoples inhabiting the country. Their main occupation.